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COMPENDIUM 


CHURCH    HISTORY 


BY   THE 


REV.  ANDREW  C.  ZENOS,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Biblical  Theology  in  the  McCormick  Tlieological  Seminary, 
Chicago,  Illinois 


WITH    AN    INTRODUCTION    BY   THE 

REV.  JOHN  DEWITT,  D.D.,  LL.  D. 

Archibald  Alexander   Professor  of  Church   History   in  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary 


Philadelphia,  Pa.  : 

Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication  and 

Sabbath-School  Work 

1896 


Copyright,   1896,   by 
THE   TRUSTEES    OF   THE   PRESBYTKRIAN    BOARD 
OF   PUBLICATION    AND    SABBATH- 
SCHOOL   WORK. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


3^ 


PART  I.     THE  ANCIENT  PERIOD. 
(B.  C.  4-A.  D.  590.) 

IXTRODUCTION    BV   THE    REV.    JOHN   DEWITT,  D.D.,  LI,.    D.    1-3. 
PRELIMINARY. 

History — Church  History — History  of  the  Christian  Church — The  Christian 
Church — Visible  and  invisible— Church  History  and  secular  Hisiory — 
Advantages  of  the  study — Divisions 5-10 

CHAPTER  I. 

CONDITION    OF   THE   WORLD. 

Preparation  for  Christianity— Contribution  of  Greece  to  this  preparation — 
ContributioT  of  Rome — Corrupt  religion  and  morals — Judaism — The 
Pharisees — Sadducees — Essenes — Scribes —  Synagogue  —  Dispersion — 
Alexandrian  influence — Proselytes — Samaritans — Political  history 11-17 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE    APOSTOLIC   AGE   (30-IO0). 

Birth  of  Jesus  Christ — Ministry  and  death — Pentecost — Original  community 
— Appointment  of  deacons— Martyrdom  of  Stephen — Preaching  in 
Samaria— Preaching  to  proselytes — Preaching  to  Gentiles — Paul's  con- 
version— First  missionary  journey — Question  concerning  Gentile  Chris- 
tians—-Assembly  at  Jerusalem— Second  missionarj-  journey — Third  mis- 
sionary journey  —  Peter — James  —  The  other  Apostles — John — The 
Christian  Church  and  the  world — Persecution  under  Nero  and  Domi- 
tian— Fall  of  Jerusalem— Polity  of  the  Church— Worship— Lord's  Sup- 
per--Eaptism— Other  ordinances — Literary  activity  (writing  of  the  New 
Testament) — Heresies 18-30 

CHAPTER  in. 

THE   SUB-APOSTOLIC    AGE   (100-170   A.    d). 

Spread  of  Christianity — Christianity  distinguished  from  Judaism — The  Jews 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem — Rabbinical  schools — Christianity  and  the 
world— Laws  affecting  the  Church — Pliny's  letter  to  Trajan  — Hadrian 
— .Antoninus  Pius — Marcus  .Aurelius.  Literary  productions— Apostolic 
Fathers — Clement — Barnabas —  Ignatius —  Hernias — Polycarp—  Papias 
—  The  Teachings  of  the  'T-wehe—The.  Apologists— Justin— Tatian — 
Heresies — Pseudo-Clementine  writings — Nazarenes,  Ebionites,  etc  — 
Gnostics  in  general — Special  Gnostic  systems — Bardesanes — Develop- 
ment of  local  association— Catholic  Church— Worship— Montanism.. . .       31-43 

iii. 


iv.  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    ANTE-NICENE    PERIOD   (170-325    A.    d). 

Spread  of  Christianity— Attacks  of  Pagan  philosophers  —  Apollonius  of 
Tyana — Neo-Platonism — Porphyry — Persecutions — Alexander  Severus 
— Maximin — Decius — Gallienus — Diocletian 44-50 

CHAPTER  V. 

ANTE-NICENE    CHRISTIAN   THOUGHT. 

Christian  writings— Irenaeus—  Hippolytus  —  Gains  —  Hegesippus  —  Julius 
Africanus — TertuUian — Minor  Latin  writers  —  Alexandrian  School— 
Panta-nus — Clement — Origan  (life  works,  Theology) — Dionysius— Greg- 
ory Thaumaturgus — Methodius — Emergence  of  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Testament— The  Rule  of  Faith  — Heresies — The  Alogi — Monarchian- 
ism — Dynamic  Monarchianism — Theodotus— Paul  of  Samosata — Modal 
Monarchianism—Patripassians—Sabellius— Beryl— Chiliasm Si-59 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ECCLESIASTICAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

Clergy  and  laity — The  bishops — Presbyters  and  deacons— Lower  clergy^ 
Election  and  consecration  of  bishops— Support  of  clergy — Marriage — 
Hierarchical  organization— Synods — Patriarchates — Primacy  of  Rome — 
Ecclesiastical  law — Discipline — Schism  of  Callixtus  and  Hippolytus — 
of  Novatian— Felicissimus — Fortunatus — Meletius — Worship~-Baptism 
— Sacred  Seasons — Quartodeciman  controversy  —  Church  buildings — 
Catacombs— Emblematic  decorations — Asceticism — Hermits — Anthony 
— Manichffiism 6o-6g 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CHURCH    AND   STATE    I.V    THE    NICENE   AGE   (325-590). 

Constantine  and  Licinnius— Christianity  made  the  state  religion— Char- 
acter of  Constantine — His  sons— Julian — Restoration  of  Christianity — 
Attitude  of  Pagan  philosophy— Suppression  of  heathenism — Hypsista- 
rians  and  Euchets — Christianity  in  Persia — In  Armenia — In  Abyssinia 
— Among  the  Goths— Among  the  Franks— In  Britain— In  Ireland— St. 
Patrick— In  Scotland 70-77 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    HIERARCHY    AND    POLITY. 

Extension  of  episcopal  administration — Privileges  granted  by  the  govern- 
ment to  Church— New  officers — QuaUfications  for  entering  clerical  life 
— Ecumenical  councils— Patriarchates — Claims  of  Rome — Leo  I 7S-82 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THEOLOGY   AND   CONTROVERSIES. 

Arius  and  his  views— Council  of  Nicsa  325 — Semi-Arian  controversy — 
Anomaeans  and  Homoiousians — Ambrose  and  Hilary — Macedonian- 
ism — The  Cappadocian  theologians — Origan's  influence — Origenistic 
controversy — Theophilus  and  Chrysostom — Christological  controversies 
— Apollinaris — Theodore  of  Mopsuestia — Nestorianism — Etychianism 
— Monophysitism— Coimcil  of  Chalcedon— Debates  on  Monophysitisiii 
— Fifth  Ecumenical  Council— Jacobites— Augustine — His  work — His 
theology — Pelagianism — Julian  of  Eclanum — Semi-Pelagianism — Pris- 
cillianism 83-97 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  V. 

CHAPTER  X. 

NICENK   AND   POST-NICENE   INSTITUTIONS. 

Eucharistic  service — Doctrine  of  Sacrifice — Sunday —  Easter —  Epiphany 
and  Christmas — Saint  and  martyr  worship — The  Virgin  Mary— Angel- 
worship — Image-worship — Opposition  to  images — Church  buildings — 
Discipline  —  Baptism — Law — Donatists — Monasticism  —  Coenobites — 
Monastic  rules — Western  Monasticism — Jovinian 98-105 


PART  II.     THE  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.     (590-1517.) 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF   THE   MIDDLE    AGES. 

End  of  the  Western  Empire — The  Church  and   the  Dark  Ages — Limits  of 

the  Middle  Ages — Geographical  distribution  of  races 107-iog 

CHAPTER  IL 

THE   CHURCH    IN    THE   EAST. 

The  disturbing  elements — Arabia — Its  people  and  its  religions — Life  of 
Mohammed — System — The  Koran — Spread  of  Mohammedanism — Mon- 
othelite  controversy  —  Sixth  Ecumenical  Council — The  Quiuisext 
Council — Subsequent  history  of  Mcnothelites — Image-worship — Con- 
troversy— Seventh  Ecumenical  Council — Final  Conflict — The  Western 
Church  on  Image-Worship — Paulicians 110-117 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  CHURCH    IN    THE   WEST — THE    FRANK    KINGDOM. 

Gregory  I. — Controversy  as  to  universal  bishopric — Successors  of  Gregory — 
The  Frank  Kingdom — Charles  Martel— Pepin  the  Short — Charlemagne 
— The  Holy  Roman  Empire 118-121 

CHAPTER  IV. 

CHRISTIANIZATION   OF   THE   TEUTONS. 

General  character  of  medieval  missions — Augustine  and  the  Anglo-Saxons 
— The  Keltic  Churches — Christian  literature  in  England — Columbanus 
— Willibrord — Boniface 122-125 

CHAPTER  V. 

CHRISTIAN   THOUGHT    AND    LIFE    IN    THE  WEST. 

The  Court  of  Charlemagne — Isidore  of  Seville — Adoptionism — Adoption- 
ism  condemned — Ecclesiastical  corruption — -Legislation  passes  into  the 
hands  of  the  civil  government — Law  of  Spain — of  Charlemagne — Legis- 
lation as  to  clergy  —  Ecclesiastical  discipline  —  Penitential  books  — 
Homiliaria — Church  music 126-130 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE     PAPACY   AND    THE    HOLY    ROMAN    EMPIRE   (80O-IO73). 

Decline  of  the  Carolingian  dynasty—  Temporary  decline  of  the  Papacy — 
The  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals — The  Female  Pope  Joanna — Nicholas 
I. — Hadrian  II. — John  VIII. — The  Pornocracy — Tusculan  Supremacy 
— Synod  of  Sutri  and  Reforms 131-136 


vi.  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CHRISTIANIZATION    OF   THE   SCANDINAVIANS    AND   SLAVS. 

Harald  Klak — Ansgar  in  Denmark,  in  Sweden — Conversion  of  Denmark — 
Norway — Iceland — The  Slavs — Christianization  of  Bulgaria — Moravia — 
Bohemia — Poland — Russia — the  Wends — the  Magyars 137-143 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONTROVERSIES    AND   SCHISMS. 

Augustinianism  in  the  Church — Gotschalk — His  view  condemned — His  im- 
prisonment— Controversy  carried  on — John  Scotus  Erigena — End  of 
the  controversy — Sacramentarian  controversy — Berengarius  and  his 
views — Differences  between  Eastern  and  Western  churches — Separa- 
tion in  the  ninth  century—  Final  schism 144-1 50 

CHAPTER  IX. 

LIFE   AND   MORALS    IN    THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

Degeneration  of  morals — The  Dark  Century — The  wholesome  influence  of 
the  Church — Slavery — Private  feuds — "  Truce  of  God  " — Discipline — 
Worship — Hymnology — Monasticism — Reforms — Clugny 'Si^'SS 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE    PAPACY    AND   THE     EMPIRE    IN    CONFLICT   (1073-1294). 

Accession  of  Gregory  VII. — Reforms  —  Ideals  of  Hildebrand  —  Conflict 
with  and  submission  of  Henry  IV.  —  Rebellion  of  Henry,  and  death  of 
the  pope — Successors  of  Gregory — Guelph  and  Ghibelline — Arnold  of 
Brescia — Conflict  with  Frederick  Barbarossa — Henry  II.  and  Thomas 
k  Becket — Innocent  III. — Frederick  II. —  Fifth  Crusade — Conflict  re- 
newed— Fall  of  the  Hohenstaufen — Louis  IX.  and  the  Pragmatic 
sanction — The  Hapsburgs — Gregory  X. — Martin  IV. — Sicilian  vespers 
— Celestine  V 156-164 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   CRUSADES — WARS   OF   THE   CHURCH    AGAINST    INFIDELS    AND    HERETICS. 

Mohammedan  control  of  Palestine— Peter  the  Hermit — The  First  crusade — 
Consequences — Knightly  orders — .Second  crusade  —  Third  crusade — 
Fourth  crusade — Fifth  crusade — Sixth  and  seventh  crusades— Good 
and  evil  results — Albigensian  crusade — Waldensians — Petrobrusians — 
Bogomiles 165-170 

CHAPTER  XII. 

MONASTICISM    AND    SCHOLASTICISM — LEARNING   AND    PIETY. 

Spirit  of  independence — New  orders — Cistercians — Other  orders — The  Car- 
thusians— The  Mendicants  —  Dominican  order — Franciscan  order — 
Growth  of  the  Mendicant  orders — Universities — .4rabic  and  Jewish 
Aristotelianism — Scholasticism — Ansel m — Abelard — Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux — Gilbert  of  Porr^e — School  of  St.  Victor — Peter  Lombard — Alex- 
ander Hales — John  of  .Salisbury — Albertus  Magnus — Thomas  Aquinas 
— Bonaventura — Duns  Scotus — Roger  Bacon — Raymond  Lull 171-179 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  vii. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

DECLINE   OF   THE    PAPACY. 

Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip  the  Fair — Removal  to  Avignon — Babylonian 
captivitv  of  the  papacy — Feud  with  the  empire — The  Golden  Bull — • 
Rieuzi— End  of  the  captivity — The  great  schism — Attempts  to  heal 
the  breach — Council  of  Constance — Council  of  Basel — Removal  to 
Florence — Plan  to  reunite  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches — Fall  of 
Constantinople— Revival  of  crusading— The  "  wicked  "  popes— Leo  X.  180-187 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

LITERATURE   AND    PHILOSOPHY. 

Scholasticism — William  of  Occam — Marsilius  of  Padua — Gabriel  Biel — 
Mysticism — Eckhart — Tauler — Nicholas  of  Basel — Henr\'  Suso — John 
Ruysbroek — The  Friends  of  God — Thomas  a  Kempis — Natural  .Science 
— Raymond  of  Sabunde — Biblical  learning — Nicholas  de  Lyra — Faber 
Stapulensis — The  Renaissance — Reuchlin — Erasmus — Colet  and  More.  188-192 

CHAPTER  XV. 

SPIRITUAL   LIFE. 

The   Jubilee — Indulgences— Inquisition  —  Wyclif  —  John   Huss — Hussite 

war — Calixtines  and  Taborites — Savonarola 193-197 


PART  III.     THE  MODERN  PERIOD.     (1517-1896.) 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE   RISE   OF   THE   REFORMATION   (1517-15S5). 

Leo  X.  decides  on  the  sale  of  indulgences — Martin  Luther's  early  life — 
Martin  Luther  a  monk  and  professor  at  Wittenberg — The  posting  of 
the  ninety-five  theses — Leipzig  disputation — Excommunication — Me- 
lanchthon — Diet  of  Worms — Luther  at  the  Wartburg — The  Zwickau 
prophets  at  Wittenberg — Diets  of  Nuremberg  and  Speyer — Diet  of 
Augsburg — Luther's  marriage — His  disputes  wjth  Henry'  VIII. — With 
Erasmus — Peasants'  war — Zwingli — His  removal  to  Ziirich  and  spread 
of  his  views — Political  complications — Lutheran  andZwinglian  reforms 
compared — Sacramentarian  controversy — Marburg  conference — Relig- 
ious war  in  Switzerland — Death  of  Zwingli — League  of  Smalcald — 
Conference  at  Ratisbon— Death  of  Luther— Smalcaldic  War— Peace  of 
Augsburg 198-209 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE   SPREAD   OF   THE    REFORMATION. 

The  Reformation  in  Denmark — Norway,  Ireland,  Sweden — In  France — un- 
der F'rancis  I. — Under  Henry  II. — In  England  under  Henry  VIII. — 
Rupture  with  Rome — Progress  of  Reformation — Edward  VI. — Geneva 
and  Farel — John  Calvin — Institutes — Calvinism  at  Geneva — Libertines 
— Servetus 210-2 1 8 


yill  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   COUNTER-REFORMATION. 

Effect  of  the  reformation  on  the  CathoHc  Church— Italy  and  the  reformation 
— Oratory  of  the  Divine  Love — Two  tendencies— Contarini  and  his 
party— Caraffa — Council  of  Trent— Decision  as  to  Scripture— Theologi- 
cal questions— Sacraments— Suspension  of  sessions  —  Resumption- 
Paul  IV.  and  Carlo  Borromeo — Moral  reforms  and  effects  of  the  Coun- 
cil—The Inquisition — The  Index  Expurgatorius— The  Inquisition  in 
Spain— New  monastic  orders— The  Jesuits— Origin— Constitution- 
Labors— Missions 219-228 

CHAPTER  IV. 

STRUGGLES   OF   PROTESTANTISM    ON    THE   CONTINENT   (1555-1648). 

Abdication  of  Charles  v.— Phillip  II.  in  the  Netherlands— The  princes  of 
Holland— Break  with  Philip  II.— Formation  of  the  Dutch  Republic- 
Prince  Maurice— France  under  Henry  II.— under  Francis  II.— Charles 
IX.— Treaty  of  St.  Germain— Henry  III.— Henry  of  Navarre— Edict 
of  Nantes— Beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War— First  and  second  pe- 
riods—Gustavus  Adolphus— Richelieu— The  Treaty  of  Westphalia 229-236 

CHAPTER   V. 

CHURCHES   OF   ENGLAND   AND   SCOTLAND. 

Accession  of  Mary— Persecutions— Accession  of  Elizabeth— Origin  of  Puri- 
tanism—Independency—James I.— Authorized  version  of  the  Bible 
—Severity  against  Catholics— Conflict  with  Parliament— Charles  I.— 
Strafford  and  Laud— The  Book  of  Sports— Conflict  with  Hampden 
and  Cromwell— Long  Parliament— Execution  of  Strafford  and  Laud- 
Civil  war— Execution  of  the  king— Reforms  in  Scotland— Organization 
of  the  Congregation  and  Covenant— John  Knox— Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
—Melville— Efforts  to  episcopalianize  the  Church  of  Scotland 237-246 

CHAPTER  VI. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY. 

The  Augsburg  confession  and  the  Loci  Covivmues—AgricoU  and  Antino- 
mianism— Schwenkfeld  and  Osiander— Lutherans  and  Melanchthomans 
— Adiaphoristic  controversy— Svnergistic  controversy  —  Flacianism— 
Crypto-Calvinism— Formula  of  Concord— Rise  of  Arminianism— The 
Remonstrance— Synod  of  Dort— Westminster  Assembly— The  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant— Work  of  the  Westminster  Assembly 247-254 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    POLITICAL  CHANGES   AND   THE   ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Changes  brought  about  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia— Decline  of  Holy  Ro- 
man Empire— Poland,  Sweden,  and  Spain— Growth  of  Russia  and  the 
Netherlands— France— The  last  Stuarts— The  Galilean  question-- 
Jansenism— Port  Roval— Pascal  and  the  Provincial  Letters— Quesnel  s 
Mora/  Refiec/wiis—BuWs  in  Veniam  Dominus  and  Umg-enifus— End  of 
Jansenism— Quietism— Madame  Guyon  and  Fenelon— St.  Francis  of 
Sales— The  Jesuits  on  the  mission-field— unpopularity  at  home— Sup- 
pression of  the  order 255.201 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  ix 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

LUTHERAN   ORTHODOXY    AND   DISSENT. 

Lutheranism  in  Germany  and  Scandinavia — Pietism — Spener — Francke — • 
Zinzendorf — The  Moravian  Brethren — Moravian  theology — Swedenborg 
— Swedenborgianism — The  New  Jerusalem  Church — Kenotic-Cryptic 
controversy — Calixtine  controversy — Syncretism 262-266 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   ANGLICAN    AND  REFORMED   CHURCHES. 

Cromwell  and  the  Independents — Charles  II. — Scotland — Cameronians — 
James  II. — William  and  Mary — Queen  Anne — Bounty  Fund — Sachev- 
ernell  case — Bangorian  controversy — Roman  Catholics — The  Reformed 
Church  in  France,  in  .Switzerland — Holland,  Cocceians  and  Voetians — 
Federal  Theology — Amyraldian  theology 267-271 

CHAPTER   X. 

PHILOSOPHY    AND   THEOLOGY 

Bacon — Descartes — New  beginning  in  philosophy — Spinoza — Locke — Leib- 
nitz and  Wolf — Berkeley  and  idealism — Kant — Deism — Herbert  of 
Cherbury—Thomas  Hobbes— Charles  Blunt — John  Toland — Anthony 
Collins — Bolingbroke — Hume — French  Deists — Voltaire — Rousseau — 
The  Encyclopedists — German  Rationalism — (The  A  ufkldruttg)  Frede- 
rick II. — Degeneration  of  pulpit — Lessing — Unitarianism  in  England 
— Samuel  Clark — Nathaniel  Lardner— William  Whiston — Theophlius 
Lindsey — Joseph  Priestley — Unitarian  defences — Bull — Waterland  — 
Butler — Paley — Scholars  and  theologians — Leighton,  Burnet,  Pri- 
deaux,  Bingham,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Pearson,  Barrow,  South — Puritans 
Baxter,  Owen,  Howe,  Seldon,  Milton,  Bunyan — Latitudinarianism 
Cudvvorth— Tillotson — Hymn-writing,  Toplady,  Watts,  the  Wesleys, 
Doddridge 272-280 

CHAPTER  XI. 

QUAKERS    AND    METHODISTS. 

Universal  decline  of  spiritual  life  in  the  post-Reformation  age — Reforma- 
tion age — Origin  of  Friends — The  Inner  light  extravagances — The 
Oxford  Methodists— Wesley  and  the  Moravians— Wesley's  visit  to 
Herrnhut—Whitefield— Preaching  by  the  revivalists— Wesley's  work — 
Name  of  organization — Methodist  society  becomes  a  church — Whitefield 
in  Wales  and  America— Results— Theology  and  learning 281-286 

CHAPTER  XII. 

NEW    CONDITIONS    IN    THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Philosophy  and  politics  potent  factors— French  revolution,  causes— Out- 
break—Radical  changes— Bonaparte— Restoration  of  Church  affairs  in 
France— Changes  in  the  rest  of  Europe— Progress  in  England — Philos- 
ophy until  Hegel— Fitchte,  Herbert,  Schelling  —  Hegel— Schopen- 
hauer— Comte — Spencer — Scottish  philosophy — Jacobi — Lotze 287-293 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE   ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH   IN    THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Pius  VII.— Gregory  XVI.— Pius  IX.— Vatican  Council— Dogma  of  infal- 
libility—Old Catholic  movement— The  pope  as  a  prisoner  at  the  Vatican 
— Leo  XIII. — Diverging  tendencies  in  Romanism— Ultramontainism — 
The  Kultur-Kampf— Schools  Jesuits— May  laws— Reconciliation 294-298 


X  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROTESTANTISM    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Reunion  of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  in  Germany — The  Reformed 
Church  in  France — Waldensians  in  Italy — The  Church  in  Holland — 
Free  Church  in  Scotland — Schleiermacher — His  influence —  Strauss, 
Baur  and  the  Tubingen  school — Ritschl  —  S.  T.  Coleridge — Broad 
Church  party  in  England — Tractarianism — Low  Church  party — Edward 
Irving  and  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  —  Practical  tendency — 
Missions,  Carey,  London  Missionary  Society,  its  missionaries — Morri- 
son, Williams,  Ellis,  Moffat,  Livingstone — Scottish  Missionary  Society, 
Robert  Haldane— Church  Missionary  Society — The  missionary  idea 
across  the  Channel  — Special  missions — Churches  as  missionary  organ- 
izations—Bible societies— Sunday  schools— Evangelical  Alliance— Its 
constitution  aud  work 299-308 

CHAPTER  XV. 

CHRISTIANITY    IN    AMERICA— IN    THE    COLONIAL   ERA. 

Discoveries — Explorations  and  colonizations  of  western  hemisphere — Mis- 
sionaries with  .Spaniards — Olmedo  —  French  and  Jesuits  —  English 
colonies — The  Pilgrims — Winthrop  and  the  Puritans — Hooker  and  the 
Connecticut  colony — Calvert — and  Maryland — Pennsylvania— Georgia — 
Smaller  companies— Carolinas — Dutch  settlement.  New  York — Cathol- 
icism and  Puritanism  in  America — Forms  of  Protestantism — Roger 
WilHams  and  Rhode  Island — Church  Government  in  Massachussetts — 
Cambridge  platform  —  Saybrook  platform  —  Half-way  Covenant — 
Education  in  the  Colonies  :  Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  Princeton — 
Theologians—  Hutchinsonianism  —  Solomon  Stoddard's  view  of  the 
Lord's  Supper— Rehgious  life— Witchcraft  delusion— Missions— Eliot 
— Sargeant — Brainerd 309-320 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    NATIONAL  ERA. 

Low  condition  of  religion— Deism  and  infidelity— Revival  of  1796-1803 — 
Free  Church  system— Denominationalism — The  Episcopal  Church — 
Timothy  Cutler— White— Seabury— Low  Church  and  Broad  Church — 
Rise  of  Unitarianism — Parker— Transcendentalism  —  New_  England 
Theology — IMissions  of  Congregationalists — Emerson — Baptists — Mis- 
sions—Campbellites —  Presbyterians  in  New  England  —  Makemie 
Disruption  of  1745-1748— Disruption  of  1837 — Cumberland  Presbyte- 
rian Southern  Church — Presbyterian  missions — Dutch  and  German  Re- 
formed Churches — Lutherans — Methodism — Divisions — Roman  Catho- 
lics—Archbishop Carroll— Uuiversalists—Relly— Murray 321-334 


INTRODUCTION. 


Every  writer  on  education  recognizes  the  fine  influence 
exerted  by  the  study  of  history  in  disciplining  and  cul- 
tivating the  faculties  and  in  enlarging  the  intellectual 
horizon.  The  study  of  history  can  best  be  pursued  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  Christian  Church.  For  the 
Christian  Church,  as  the  exponent,  guardian  and  mis- 
sionary of  the  Christian  religion,  not  only  is  entrusted 
with  the  most  important  interests  of  individual  men 
and  of  human  society,  but,  for  that  very  reason,  stands 
in  the  most  intimate  and  complex  relations  to  all 
other  institutions  and  forces,  and  to  all  events  which 
affect  the  welfare  of  mankind.  In  this  view  of  it,  the 
history  of  the  Christian  Church  is  the  history  of  man  from 
the  standpoint  of  religion  ;  and  this  is  the  true  stand- 
point. No  other  point  of  view  embraces  within  its  range 
so  large  a  prospect,  or  presents  its  details  in  their  pro- 
foundest  inter-relations.  In  these  respects,  the  point  of 
view  of  politics,  or  of  the  fine  arts,  or  of  science,  or  of 
industry  and  commerce,  or  of  all  combined  in  the  term 
civilization,  must  yield  to  that  of  religion,  and  especially 
of  Christianity  considered  as  the  absolute  and  therefore 
the  universal  religion. 

For  religion,  after  all,  is  the  central,  persistent  and  uni- 
versal historical  force  and  cause.  The  claim  made  by 
St.  Paul  (Rom.  i.  i6)  that  the  gospel  is  the  power  of  God 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

(duva/xiiiOeou)  is  by  nothing  more  strikingly  and  abundantly 
confirmed,  than  by  the  history  of  the  peoples  of  Europe 
and  America  since  this  gospel  has  entered  as  a  force 
into  their  civilizations.  No  one  can  read  the  great  and 
accepted  histories  of  these  peoples  or  of  sections  of  them, 
such  as  Gibbon's  Rome,  Guizot's  Civilization,  Hallam's 
Middle  Ages,  Robertson's  Charles  V.,  Hume's  England, 
Macaulay's  English  Revolution,  Motley's  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic,  Bancroft's  United  States  and  others 
which  need  not  be  mentioned  here,  without  being  pro- 
foundly impressed  by  the  fact,  that  all  of  these  great  his- 
torians, whether  deists,  moderates,  or  believing  Christians, 
agree  in  the  belief  that  not  politics  but  religion  is  the 
greatest  of  historical  energies,  the  true  historical  cause  of 
causes.  For  this  reason,  it  is  through  the  study  of  the 
history  of  Christianity  that  we  have  a  right  to  hope  that 
we  shall  achieve  and  be  able  finally  to  formulate  the 
philosophy  of  history. 

But  how  shall  the  history  of  Christianity  be  studied? 
What  can  the  layman  or  theological  student  or  clergy- 
man do,  in  order  to  grasp  surely  and  hold  in  his  mind 
this  vast  and  complicated  mass  of  facts?  We  all  know 
that  the  materials  of  history  are  so  abundant  and  so 
various,  that  when  one  first  thinks  of  them  with  a  view  to 
their  mastery,  he  is  apt  to  be  overwhelmed  and  to  abandon 
the  task  in  sheer  despair. 

This  despair,  I  believe,  would  in  most  cases  be  dissi- 
pated if  the  student  were  to  give  himself  in  the  first  place 
to  the  modest  work  of  making  himself  perfectly  familiar 
with  a  brief  and  trustworthy  outline  of  Church  history.  At 
all  events,  the  mastery  of  such  an  outline  is  an  indispen- 
sable prerequisite  to  the  interested  and  intelligent  study  of 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

the  subject.  One  must  have  a  synoptic  view  of  the  whole 
life  of  Christianity  in  the  world,  in  order  to  understand  the 
detailed  narrative  of  a  particular  historical  personage  or 
period  or  movement.  Hence  the  writer  who  contributes 
a  satisfactory  outline  of  Church  history,  that  is  to  say,  an 
outline  marked  by  clearness,  reasonable  fullness,  accu- 
racy and  true  perspective,  renders  a  great  service  to  all 
historical  students  and  readers. 

Precisely  this  great  service  has  been  rendered  by  my 
friend  and  former  colleague.  Prof.  A.  C.  Zenos,  of  Mc- 
Cormick  Theological  Seminary,  in  the  volume  I  have  the 
great  honor  thus  to  introduce.  I  know  no  better  outline 
than  this  one.  The  author's  knowledge  of  the  sources 
and  literature  of  the  subject  is  exceptionally  large.  The 
conception  of  history  which  dominates  his  book  is  the  true 
conception.  He  holds  that  the  historical  movement  is 
vital  and  organic.  And  his  experience  as  Professor  of 
History  in  one  of  the  largest  and  most  influential  of  the 
theological  seminaries  of  the  Church  has  enabled  him  to 
adjust  his  volume  to  the  needs  of  theological  students. 
His  work  merits  a  wide  circulation  and  faithful  study. 

JOHN  DEWITT. 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
July  13th,  1896. 


PRELIMINARY. 


History  is  either  the  sum  and  substance  of  events  them- 
selves or  the  narrative  and  record  of  those  events.     It  is 

that  which  happens  or  a  true  account  of  it.  The 
History.  word  may  be  and  is  used  legitimately  in   both 

of  these  senses.  As  long  as  it  is  clearly  under- 
stood which  of  the  meanings  is  attached  to  it  there  is,  of 
course,  no  harm  from  this  twofold  use  of  the  term.  His- 
tory as  a  study,  as  a  species  of  literature  and  a  science, 
deals  with  the  second  of  the  two  conceptions  above 
named.  It  is  an  attempt  to  represent  to  the  mind  as 
truthfully  as  possible,  that  is, in  its  chronological  andgenetic 
flow  the  history  that  has  taken  place.  By  as  much  as  this 
is  accomplished,  by  as  much,  that  is  to  say,  as  the  record 
corresponds  with  the  events  that  have  occurred,  the  true 
and  complete  idea  of  history  is  fulfilled.  It  becomes 
therefore  extremely  important  to  begin  with  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  special  field  which  the  student  of  any 
special  history  is  about  to  enter. 

In  a  very  broad  sense  Church   History  has  been  de- 
fined as  the  history  of  God's   people   on   earth.     In  this 

sense  it  begins  with  the  creation  of  the  first 
Oiurch  His-      human  pair.     When  by  the  Fall  the  human  race 

forfeited  as  a  unit  the  title  and  the  privileges 
of  the  people  of  God,  a  promise  was  given  of  restoration 
(Gen.  iii.  15).  In  the  fulfillment  of  this  promise  two  stages 
are  to  be  distinguished  :  First  the  period  of  the  unfold- 
ing of  the  promise.  This,  regarded  from  another  point  of 
view,  is  a  period  of  preparation,  A  portion  of  the  race 
was  separated,  made  the  special  guardian  of  the  promise 
and  subject  of  its  beneficent  provisions.  The  promise 
itself  became  more  and  more  clearly  revealed,  not  only  to 

5 


6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  people  that  received  it,  but  to  the  world  through 
them.  Church  history  during  this  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  promise  is  the  history  of  this  specially  favored 
portion  of  the  human  race.  They  are  the  people  of  God. 
The  second  stage  in  the  realization  of  the  promise  begins 
with  the  actual  and  complete  fulfillment  of  it  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Appearing  within  the  people  of  God  as 
organized  in  the  first  stage,  Jesus  Christ  proclaimed  the 
kingdom  of  God.  He  called  to  his  side  a  body  of  men 
whom  he  especially  instructed  and  trained  to  be  the 
leaders  of  the  new  order  of  things.  He  promised  them 
the  Holy  Spirit  to  take  his  own  place  as  their  guide,  when 
he  himself  should  leave  them,  and  to  enlighten  their 
minds  as  occasion  should  present  itself  in  the  perfecting 
of  the  new  dispensation.  Accordingly,  at  the  proper  time, 
the  Holy  Spirit  was  bestowed  upon  the  disciples  of  Jesus, 
and  they  spontaneously  formed  themselves  into  a  new 
community.  Ever  since  that  occasion  Church  history  has 
been  the  history  of  this  new  or  Christian  community. 

While  the  above  is  a  very  broad  and  in  many  respects 

logical  idea  of  Church  history,  usage  has  settled  down  to 

a  slightly  different  one.     It  has  been  the  prac- 

Historyofthe    ticc,  Uniform  for  a  long  time  past,  to  speak  of 

Christian  .  .  . 

Church.  Church  history  as  the  history,  in  a  loose  sense 

of  the  Christian  Church,  leaving  out  the  pre- 
Christian  part  of  the  history  of  God's  people  for  another 
rubric  under  one  of  several  titles,  such  as  History  of  the 
Jewish  Church,  The  History  of  Israel,  The  History  of  the 
Old  Testament,  etc.  Church  history,  according  to  this 
almost  universal  practice,  includes  only  the  second  stage 
of  the  history  of  God's  people  as  above  described.  In  the 
search  for  a  clearer  conception  of  the  field  of  Church  his- 
tory we  are  thus  led  to  limit  ourselves  to  the  inquiry, 
What  is  the  Christian  Church  ? 

The  Christian   Church  is  that  spiritual  society  which 

Jesus  Christ  founded  to  participate  in  the  benefits  of  the 

kingdom  of  God  and  communicate  the  same  to 

The  Christian    the  wholc  world.     This  society  is  essentially  a 

Church,  visible  .    .,        ,  .       ,.  ^    •,       ^  i     • 

and  invisible.     Spiritual  Organization,  and  its  true  and  inner 
history  transcends    the    observation    of    the 


PRELIMINARY.  y 

senses.  Its  Head  is  the  glorified  Jesus  Christ  himself, 
and  its  organizing  force  the  Holy  Spirit.  Yet  it  is  mani- 
fested first,  in  an  outward  fellowship,  consisting  of  all  those 
who  profess  their  faith  in  Jesus,  then  in  clearly  defined 
forms  of  religious  life,  and  lastly  in  institutions  calculated 
to  promote  the  spiritual  life  according  to  the  ideals  pre- 
sented by  its  great  Head.  To  distinguish  between  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  strictly  conceived  of  and  the  out- 
ward and  institutional  manifestations  of  the  same,  the  ad- 
jectives "  visible  "  and  "  invisible  "  have  been  and  are  some- 
times used.  While  these  adjectives  express  a  dilTerence 
and  may  serve  a  good  purpose,  it  is  more  convenient  practi- 
cally to  set  aside  this  distinction.  Church  history  cannot, 
after  all,  be  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  either  in  its 
invisible  or  its  visible  form.  The  history  of  the  invisible 
Church,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  cannot  be  studied 
scientifically,  and  as  for  the  visible  form  of  it,  it  would  en- 
tail very  much  research  and  division  of  opinion  to  undertake 
to  determine  what  the  Church  is  in  this  sense,  besides  de- 
parting from  that  usage  which  has  already  been  appealed 
to  as  favoring  the  idea  of  Church  history  as  the  history  of 
the  Christian  Church  only  in  a  loose  sense.  More  precisely, 
then.  Church  history  is  the  history  of  Christianity.  It  is 
only  on  the  basis  of  this  conception  of  it  that  we  shall  see 
the  propriety  of  beginning,  as  Church  historians  uniformly 
do,  with  the  organization  of  Christianity  in  the  Apostolic 
ao-e,  and  including  in  our  survey  all  the  facts  which  either 
directly  or  indirectly  have  issued  from  or  centered  in 
Christianity. 

The  relation  of  Church  history   to  secular  history  on 
the  basis  of  this  idea  will   appear   much   closer  than  the 

terms  secular  and  ecclesiastical  strictly  con- 
Church  History  strucd  would  lead  one  to  suppose.  Christi- 
Hfsto^"''''       anity  is  planted  in  the  world  with  the  evident 

purpose  of  conveying  to  the  world  certain  bene- 
fits. Whether  it  endeavor  to  do  this  by  attracting  the 
world  into  its  own  organized  society,  or  diffusing  itself 
through  the  world  of  human  society  in  some  inexplicable 
way,  as  some  of  its  most  recent  interpreters  claim  it  must 
do,  it  stands  in  the  closest  relations  to  the  world.     The 


g  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

stream  of  the  world's  history  cannot  run  separately  and  in 
a  parallel  channel  to  its  own,  but  must  mingle,  and  at 
times  be  identical  with  it.  To  attempt  to  disentangle 
Church  history  from  secular  history  is  to  shut  off  much  of 
the  light  in  which  the  facts  of  Church  history  must  be 
seen  in  order  to  be  correctly  interpreted. 

The   advantages    of    the    study  of  Church    history   to 

ministers  and  theologians  are  very  apparent.     The  same 

advantages  exist  in  this  study  for  others  than 

Advantages        ministers    and     theologians.     Some    of   these 

of  the  Study.  ,  .    ,,  9  , 

may  be  specially  mentioned. 

First,  the  subject  is  full  of  interest  in  itself.  There  is 
in  this  field  enough  to  arrest  the  attention,  to  stimulate 
thought  and  gratify  the  thirst  for  information  which  ex- 
ists, and  should  exist,  in  every  healthy  human  soul. 

Secondly,  for  the  Christian  this  natural  interest  is  en- 
hanced by  the  consciousness  that  he  is  here  face  to  face 
with  his  spiritual  pedigree.  The  Church  of  the  past  is 
his  ancestry.  If  he  feel  his  vital  connection  with  the 
people  of  God,  he  appropriates  to  himself  some  share  in 
the  best  deeds  of  the  best  men  the  world  has  produced. 
If  he  lack  this  feeling,  no  means  will  be  found  more  effect- 
ual in  arousing  it  in  him  than  the  actual  contact  with 
these  men  and  deeds. 

Thirdly,  Church  history,  as  dealing  with  the  course  of 
the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  appeals  to  the  interest  of 
the  Christian  in  the  divine  purpose.  Even  if  one  were  to 
be  indifferent  to  its  attractions  as  a  field  in  which  he 
might  learn  of  his  own  spiritual  ancestry,  as  a  field  where 
he  has  an  opportunity  to  trace  the  fortunes  of  a  divine  in- 
stitution and  a  divine  purpose,  it  should  not  fail  to  attract 
the  Christian. 

Fourthly,  the  study  is  full  of  instruction.  History  is 
said  to  repeat  itself.  This  is  not  only  true  but  practically 
an  extremely  valuable  truth  to  bear  in  mind.  The  past 
is  full  of  parallels  to  the  present.  One  who  has  familiar- 
ized himself  with  these  will  not  find  himself  at  a  loss  as 
to  how  to  meet  difficulties.  The  successes  of  those  who 
in  the  past  met  the  situations  that  confront  him  will  guide 
him  also  to  success  if  he  imitate  their  course ;  and  their 


PRELIMINARY.  o 

failures  will  warn  him  to  avoid  their  mistakes.  Many 
apparently  new  ideas  he  will  recognize  as  old  errors  ex- 
ploded long  ago,  and  avoid  the  snare  thus  spread  before 
him. 

Fifthly,  the  student  of  history  is  bound  to  grow  more 
and  more  broad  and  catholic  as  he  understands  the 
secrets  of  his  science.  He  will  learn  to  love  men  of  other 
names  and  persuasions  than  his  own.  He  will  see  the 
breadth  of  the  true  Church  of  God.  He  will  enter  into 
the  controversies  of  past  ages  with  a  calm  mind  and  see 
much  good  in  the  side  which  was  perhaps  mainly  wrong. 
He  will  see,  on  the  other  hand,  much  wrong  in  the  side 
which  was  in  the  main  right.  He  will  learn  thus  to  dis- 
trust mere  partisan  feeling  and  acquire  the  habit  of 
entering  into  present-day  debates  with  earnestness,  and 
yet  with  consideration  for  those  who  may  dififer  from 
him. 

Finally,  the  student  of  Church  history  cannot  but  be 
inspired  and  stimulated  by  the  noble  lives  and  great 
thoughts  of  the  saints  of  God.  As  he  comes  in  contact 
with  those  who  sacrificed  their  lives  in  testimony  of  the 
truth  in  which  they  believed  and  for  the  love  of  their 
Master,  he  will  feel  himself  rebuked  for  every  impulse  to 
refuse  to  sacrifice ;  he  will  be  stimulated  to  earnestness 
and  enthusiasm  in  the  Christian  life. 

The    divisions    of    Church   history  must  be  based   on 

pivotal  events  in  the   life  of  the  Church.     While  history 

in  general,  and  ecclesiastical  history  in  partic- 

Divisionsof       ular,  is    continuous,   vet    certain    critical  mo- 

Church  His-  ^--^j-  -ii-i  j  •«. 

tory.  ments    in   it    furnish    logical   and    convenient 

points  of  partition  into  periods.  Different 
views  have  been  put  forth  as  to  which  are  the  epoch-mak- 
ing events  of  Church  history  and  consequently  different 
schemes  of  periodology  have  been  proposed.  Perhaps 
the  one  which  combines  the  largest  number  of  consid- 
erations in  its  favor  is  that  which  has  gained  in  acceptance 
in  recent  years.  According  to  this  scheme  there  are  to  be 
distinguished  three  main  periods  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church  as  follows  : 

I,  The  Ancient  Period  beginning  with  the  Advent  of 


lo  INTRODUCTION. 

Jesus  Christ  4  B.  C.   and   extending  to  the  accession   of 
Gregory  I.  (the  Great),  A.  D.  590. 

II.  The  Mediaeval  Period  beginning  with  the  accession 
of  Gregory  I.,  A.  D.  590,  and  extending  to  the  opening  of 
the  Reformation  A.  D.  15 17. 

III.  The  Modern  Period  beginning  with  the  Reforma- 
tion and  extending  to  the  present  time,  A.  D.  15 17-1896. 

These  large  periods  may  be  further  subdivided  into 
epochs  or  ages  as  follows  : 
I.  The  Ancient  Period  into  : 

1.  The  Apostolic  Age,  to  the  death  of  the  last  of  the 
Apostles,  or  about  A.  D.  100. 

2.  The  Sub-Apostolic  Age,  to  the  Rise  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  or  about  A.  I).  170. 

3.  The  Ante-Nicene  Epoch,  to  the  Council  of  Nicaea, 
A.  D.  325. 

4.  l"he  Post-Nicene  Epoch,  to  the  end  of  the  Ancient 
Period,  A.  D.  590. 

II.  The  Mediaeval  Period  : 

1.  The  Development  of  the  Papacy,  to  the  foundation 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  A.  D.  800. 

2.  The  Papacy  and  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  to  the 
accession  of  Hildebrand,  A.  D.  1073. 

3.  The  Ascendancy  of  the  Papacy,  to  A.  D.  1294. 

4.  The  Decline  of  the  Papacy,  to  the  end  of  the  Medi- 
aeval Period,  A.  D.  1517. 

III.  The  Modern  Period  : 

1.  The  Reformation  Generation,  to  A.  D.  1555. 

2.  The  Consolidation  of  the  Reformation,  to  the  Treaty 
of  Westphalia,  A.  D.  1648. 

3.  The  Post-Reformation  Epoch,  to  the  French  Revo- 
lution, A.  D.  1789. 

4.  The  Contemporaneous  Age,  or  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, to  the  Present  day. 


PART  I.   THE  ANCIENT  PERIOD. 

(4  E.  C— A.  D.  590.) 


CHAPTER  I. 
CONDITION   OF   THE   WORLD. 

Christianity  made  its  appearance  in  the  world  after 

a  thorough  preparation.     "  When  the  fullness  of  the  time 

was  come,   God  sent  forth  his  Son."      This 

Preparation       preparation  was  not  merely  that  made  in  Pal- 

forChristi-  ^     .^  ,  i        /-.      1.  1  1         , 

anity.  cstme    through    God  s    chosen    people,    but 

throughout  the  pagan  world  by  means  of  the 
religious,  philosophical  and  political  ideas  and  institutions 
developed  in  Europe  and  Asia  and  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa. 

The  world  of  paganism  prepared  the  way  for  Christi- 
anity through  the  two  successive  waves  emanating  re- 
Contribution  spcctively  from  the  predominance  of  the  Greek 
of  Greece  to  and  the  Rouian  influence.  The  contribu- 
this  preparation,  ^ioj^  of  the  Greek  world  to  this  preparation 
consists  in  the  elaboration  of  intellectual  systems  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  aesthetic  faculty.  Philosophy  and 
Art,  though  perhaps  not  directly  entering  into  the  first 
forms  in  which  the  gospel  was  preached,  opened  the  way 
for  the  better  understanding  and  appreciation  of  its  depths 
and  refinements.  Philosophy,  especially  after  having  run 
a  full  cycle  of  thought  under  the  earlier  philosophers,  and 
again  under  Socrates,  Plato  and  Aristotle,  had  despaired 
of  attaining  its  object,  that  is,  the  ultimate  unity  and  ex- 
planation of  all  things.     It  was  at  the  time  of  the  appear- 

II 


12  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ance  of  Christianity  pointing  to  a  certain  philosophic 
monotheism  as  the  only  residue  from  the  thoughts  and 
labors  of  centuries.  This  was  naturally  combined  in  the 
Stoic  system  with  a  certain  appreciation  of  rigid,  disinter- 
ested morality.  The  value  of  these  Greek  elements  was 
enhanced  by  their  spread  through  the  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander and  the  domination  of  his  successors  in  Syria  and 
Egypt.  The  Macedonian  armies,  like  the  inundation  of  a 
great  river,  carried  Greek  philosophy,  and  especially  the 
Greek  language,  into  the  immediate  region  in  which  the 
gospel  was  to  be  preached.  These,  therefore,  presented 
ready  forms  and  a  suitable  vehicle  for  the  dissemination 
of  the  gospel. 

The  contribution  of  the  Roman  world  to  the  preparation 
of  the  world  for  the  gospel  was  similar  to  that  of  the 
Greek  world  and  yet  different.  It  consisted 
Contribution  mainly  in  the  unification  of  the  whole  civilized  ^ 
world  by  means  of  Roman  arms  and  of  Ro- 
man law  and  government,  which  served  also  as  a  model  and 
a  mould  in  many  particulars  for  the  Christian  Church  when 
it  came  to  be  organized  more  fully  than  its  first  founders 
had  left  it.  At  the  time  of  the  appearance  o£  our  Lord  on 
earth  the  Roman  Empire  extended  from  the  Euphrates  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  from  the  Rhine  to  the  African 
desert.  Though  perhaps  not  equally  throughout  this  vast 
territory,  yet  over  a  large  portion  of  it,  the  authority  of  the 
powerful  government  of  Rome  had  made  travel,  commerce 
and  intercourse  safe  and  easy.  The  missionary  journeys 
of  the  apostles  were  thus  made  possible  or  at  any  rate 
facilitated. 

Alongside  of  these  positive  elements,  which  may  be  re- 
garded as,  in  general,  helpful  to  the  cause  of  the  gospel, 
the    heathen    world,    both    in   its    Greek    and 
Corrupt  Re-       Roman  branches  developed  the  negative  fea- 
Morais"  turcs  of  a  comipt  religious  life  and  a  degraded 

morality.  Polytheism,  such  as  prevailed  with 
the  masses  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  had  had  its 
full  and  legitimate  effect.  Superstition  and  empty  form- 
alism were  the  only  manifestations  of  the  religious  feel- 
ing.     The  religion  of  Rome  came  to  be  officially  called 


CONDITION  OF  THE  WORLD.  13 

"the  Roman  ceremonies."  And  as  for  morals,  the  pages 
of  the  most  popular  writers  of  the  day,  together  with  the 
portraitures  on  the  walls  of  the  houses  excavated  at 
Pompeii,  unite  with  the  apostle's  terrible  arraignment  of  the 
foul  practices  openly  indulged  in  at  the  time  (Rom.  i  :  19- 
32).  Thus  while  paganism  was  paving  the  way  for  Christ 
through  the  good  it  was  developing  within  itself  in  the 
form  of  Greek  philosophy  and  art  and  Roman  law  and 
government,  it  was  also  leading  men,  through  the  back 
way  of  revulsion,  disgust,  and  despair,  to  entertain  in  a 
friendly  spirit  any  system  that  might  arouse  hope  and  ap- 
peal to  the  better  instincts  and  impulses  of  their  nature. 
Meantime  Judaism  developed  some  specific  features 
during  the  generations  immediately  preceding  the  advent 

of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Babylonian  Captivity 
Judaism.  seems  to  have  permanently  cured  the  Jews  of 

that  tendency  to  assimilate  with  the  surround- 
ing nations,  against  which  their  lawgivers,  priests  and 
prophets  had  preached  almost  in  vain  during  the  previous 
ages.  From  445  B.  C,  when  the  Restoration  from  the 
Exile  was  completed  under  Nehemiah,  to  about  170  B.  C., 
when  Antiochus  Epiphanes  began  his  efforts  to  Hellenize 
them  (convert  them  to  paganism),  they  became  more  and 
more  firmly  intrenched  in  their  belief  in  Jehovah  as  the 
true  God,  in  the  law  as  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  in 
the  prophetic  utterances  and  in  "  the  other  Scriptures," 
as  containing  God's  will,  and  in  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah, as  the  one  great  future  event. 

The  law  thus  came  to  be   the  center  of  the  public  re- 
ligious life  of  the  Jewish  nation.     Within  the  Holy  Land 

the  interpretation  of  the  national  religion  gave 
The  Pharisees,  rise  to  two  parties  or  sects.     The  first  of  these 

was  the  party  of  the  Pharisees.  They  appear  as 
a  party  as  early  as  the  age  of  the  Maccabees.  They  stood 
for  the  broad  and  inclusive  view  of  the  national  religion. 
The  law  to  them  involved  a  certain  body  of  tradition. 
They  saw  a  connection  between  the  national  history  and 
the  national  law.  The  ideas  of  a  world  of  spiritual  beings, 
of  a  resurrection  and  a  future  life,  of  a  Messianic  kingdom 
and  a  radical  distinction  between  Jew  and  Gentile,  between 


14  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

perfect  observance  of  the  provisions  of  the  ceremonial 
part  of  the  law  and  the  neglect  of  it,  were  to  them  essen- 
tials of  Judaism.  They  were  the  orthodox  or  religious 
party,  and  did  much  to  keep  alive  in  the  mind  of  the 
people  some  of  the  ideas  which  were  to  be  most  useful 
to  Christianity. 

The  Sadducees  stood  for  the  narrower  construction  of 
the  old  law.     They  rejected  all  tradition.     They  took  a 
materialistic  view  of  the   world,  denying  the 
The  Sadducees.  reality    of  Spiritual  existences  and  of  immor- 
tality to  man.     They  interpreted  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Scriptures  consistently  with   these  views.     They 
were,    however,    a    powerful    party,  because    their    ranks 
were  filled  mainly   from  the  men  of  wealth  and  dignity, 
and  they  were  often  in  places  of  influence  and  authority. 
Along  with  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  it  is  customary 
to  name  the  Essenes  as   a  party.     These,  however,  were 
not  so  much  a  party  or  sect  as   a  community 
The  Essenes.     or  Order.     Their  principles  were  partly  Sad- 
ducean  and  partly  Pharisaic.     With  the  Phari- 
sees they  held  to  the  virtue  of  observing  the   law  in  its 
details.     In   fact  they   went   beyond    the    Pharisees    in 
making  it  a  condition  and  a  rule  of  membership  in  their 
community  to   observe  a  prescribed  form  of  ceremonial 
for  purification,  and  to  practice  a  rather  rigid  asceticism. 
With  the  Sadducees  they    rejected  the    doctrine    of  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  though  perhaps  not  on  the  ground 
of  disbelief  in  the  reality  of  spirit,  but  because  of  a  certain 
sense  of  the  inherent  unworthiness    of   the    body  to  be 
raised  from  the  dead.     Their  view  on  this  point  was  allied 
to  that  which  later  grew  to  be  Gnostic  and  Manichaean. 

In  the  practical  carrying  out  of  the  idea  of  the  law  as 
the  central  feature  of  the  national  religion,  two  new 
features  appeared,  viz.  the  scribes,  or  law- 
Scribes.  Syna-  yers,  as  a  class  or  profession  whose  chief  aim 
and  employment  it  was  to  study,  explain  and 
teach  the  law  to  others  ;  and  the  synagogue,  which  began 
as  a  voluntary  association  or  club  for  the  purpose  of  better 
acquaintance  with  the  law,  and  developed  into  a  sort  of 
secondary  or  auxiliary  worship.     The  meetings  held  at 


CONDITION  OF  THE  WORLD.  i^ 

first  for  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  were  enlarged  in  scope 
by  the  addition  of  prayer  and  the  singing  of  psahns  to  the 
order  of  exercises. 

Outside  of  Palestine  Judaism  assumed  a  slightly  vari- 
ant character  in  the  so-called  Dispersion  (Diaspora).     The 

geographical  field  of  the  Dispersion  was  very 
The  Dispersion,  large.     It   included,  first  of   all,  the   Mesopo- 

tamian  valley,  where  a  large  number  of  Jews 
remained  after  the  Exile.  Upon  the  founding  of  Alex- 
andria a  Jewish  colony  found  its  way  into  the  new  city, 
and  thence  overspread  into  other  portions  of  Egypt  and 
Africa,  being  reinforced  subsequently  by  large  numbers 
of  men  who  were  attracted  by  the  success  and  pros- 
perity of  their  fellow-countrymen  in  these  regions.  Thus 
many  jews  came  to  dwell  in  Libya  and  Cyrene.  There 
were  also  Jews  in  smaller  numbers  in  other  parts  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  especially  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Arabia. 
These  all  looked  on  Jerusalem  as  the  center  of  their 
national  life  and  on  the  temple  as  the  unifying  institution. 
In  a  single  instance  this  sentiment  was  violated  ;  that 
was  the  case  of  the  Jews  of  Leontopolis  who  under  Onias 
built  a  temple  in  that  city,  on  the  ground  that  the  high 
priest  at  Jerusalem  was  not  the  rightful  occupant  of  the 
office. 

The    contact  of  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion   with  the 
Gentiles  produced  its  most  marked  effects  in  Alexandria. 

Here  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  were  trans- 
influence'^"       latcd  into  Greek   and  circulated  among  Jews 

and  Gentiles.  This  translation,  which  tradition 
ascribes  as  a  whole  to  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 
(283  B.  C.),  was  no  doubt  made  little  by  little  for  several 
generations.  The  old  Testament  Apocrypha  were  attached 
to  it  as  a  supplement  bringing  Jewish  history  down  to  a  later 
date.  The  effect  of  the  Septuagint  on  the  Jews  especially 
was  to  lead  them  to  compare  the  writings  of  their  own 
prophets  with  those  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  with  whose 
works  they  had  meanwhile  become  familiar.  Thus  there 
arose  the  tendency  to  identify  the  thoughts  of  the  Hebrew 
writers  with  those  of  the  Greeks.  The  attempt  was  made 
to  find  an  agreement  between  Moses  and  Plato.     To  ac- 


1 6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

complish  this  end,  however,  it  was  necessary  to  interpret 
away  a  great  portion  of  the  Old  Testament.  A  school  of 
allegorists,  of  whom  Philo  was  the  chief,  arose,  and  the 
allegorical  method  of  interpretation  was  elaborated. 

The  Gentiles  who  were  attracted  by  Judaism,  either 
through  the  influence  of  the  Septuagint  or  by  contact 
with  the  Jews,  and  accepted  their  monotheistic 
Proselytes.  faith,  taking  part  also  in  some  of  the  religious 
observances  and  acknowledging  the  moral  law, 
were  designated  "  proselytes  of  the  gate  "  ("  devout " 
Acts  ii.  5  ;  xvii.  4,  17).  Others  who  went  further  and 
sought  and  obtained  formal  admittance  into  the  common- 
wealth of  Israel  by  submitting  to  circumcision  (women 
simply  by  baptism),  were  known  as  "proselytes  of  right- 
eousness" (Acts  ii.  10  ;  vi.  5  ;  xiii.  43). 

Besides  the  Jews  and  the  Gentiles  another  element  must 
be  taken  into  account  in  a  survey  of  the  condition  of  affairs 
at  the  time  of  the  first  appearance  of  Chris- 
Samaritans.  tianity  in  the  world.  This  is  the  Samaritans. 
The  Samaritans  occupied  an  intermediate 
place  between  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  in  every  way.  His- 
torically they  were  partly  of  Hebrew  and  partly  of  heathen 
origin.  When  Sargon  led  the  inhabitants  of  the  Northern 
kingdom  captive,  he  colonized  their  territories  by  sending 
into  them  certain  Babylonians  (2  Kings  xvii.  24).  These 
colonists  mingled  with  the  remnant  of  Israelites  left  at  the 
time  of  the  deportation,  and  the  race  resulting  from  the  in- 
termarriages was  the  Samaritan.  In  religious  belief  the 
Samaritans  occupied  the  same  middle  ground.  They  ac- 
cepted the  Pentateuch  as  Scripture,  but  not  the  rest  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Geographically  they  were  on  the 
borders  of  Judaism.  They  were  hated  and  shunned  by 
the  Jews  and  reciprocated  these  sentiments. 

Politically  Palestine   maintained  a  sort  of  semi-inde- 
pendence   acquired    under   the    Maccabees     during    the 
middle  of  the  second  century  B.  C.     About  the 
Political  end    of    this    century,  however,    it    gradually 

'^'°'^'  passed  into  a  condition  of  absolute  independ- 

ence.    This  was  preserved  under  the  princes   Hyrcanus, 
Aristobulus  and  Alexander  Jann-aeus  ;  but  a  dispute  arose 


CONDITION  OF  THE  WORLD.  17 

between  Aristobulus  II.,  and  Hyrcanus  II.,  and  gave  oc- 
casion to  the  Romans  to  interfere.  Judaea  was  subju- 
gated; Hyrcanus  II.  was  given  the  title  of  king  and 
high  priest,  but  Antipater,  an  Idumean  general,  who  had 
won  the  favor  of  the  Romans,  became  the  real  master  of 
Judaea.  Through  a  series  of  machinations  and  deeds  of 
violence,  the  son  of  Antipater,  Herod  the  Great,  usurped 
the  throne  and  established  the  Idumean  dynasty  (39 
B.  C). 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE  (4  B.  C.-A.  D.  lOO). 

The  Foundijig  of  the  Chtcrch. 

Jesus  Christ  was  born,  according  to  the  most  trust- 
worthy calculations,  during  the  last  year  of  Herod's  reign 
(four   years   before    the    traditional  date)    at 
Birth  of  je-       Bethlehem  of  Tudasa.     He  was,  in  accordance 

sus  Chnst.  ■   ,      ,  ,        ■  ...  ,     , 

with  the  prophecies  concerning  him,  descended 
from  the  royal  line  of  David,  "  conceived  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary."  His  public  appear- 
ance and  work  were  announced  by  John  the  Baptist,  son 
of  Zacharias,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius,  emperor  of 
Rome.  At  this  time  Christ,  being  about  thirty  years  of 
age,  was  baptized  by  John  and  received  a  double  sign  of 
the  approval  of  his  ministry  in  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  upon  him  "  in  the  form  of  a  dove  "  and  in  the  voice 
from  heaven  which  declared  :  "  This  is  my  beloved  Son, 
in  whom  I  am  well  pleased." 

After  a  sojourn  of  forty  days  in  the  wilderness,  and  a 
temptation,  Jesus  began  his  public  ministry.     He  spent 

one  year  at  Jerusalem  announcing  himself  to 
nlalr^  ^"^     the  rulers  of  the  people  as  the  Messiah  that  had 

been  predicted  and  was  expected.  On  being 
rejected  or  ignored  as  such  at  this  time,  he  withdrew  to 
Galilee  with  his  disciples,  and  there  taught  the  multitudes 
proclaiming  the  kingdom  of  God  and  performing  many  mir- 
acles of  healing,  having  called  to  his  side  twelve  men  to  be 
his  pupils,  assistants,  and  witnesses.  When  his  preach- 
ing seemed  to  have  met  with  the  largest  success  at  this 
place,  he  withdrew  again  with  his  disciples  into  Northern 
Galilee,  and  there  spent  some  time  instructing  them  as  to 
18 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  ig 

his  own  death  and  resurrection.  Having  completed  this 
instruction  he  went  to  Jerusalem  during  the  season  of  the 
Passover  feast.  Here,  where  his  popularity  in  Galilee 
had  meantime  excited  the  fears  of  the  rulers,  he  was 
seized  and  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  pro- 
curator of  JudcEa,  Pontius  Pilate,  and  by  him,  though 
without  sufficient  cause,  ordered  to  be  crucified.  He  was 
buried,  but  on  the  third  day,  according  to  his  own  pre- 
diction, he  rose  again,  and  showed  himself  to  his  disciples. 
He  then  passed  forty  days,  meeting  with  them  at  different 
times,  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  ascended  into  heaven. 
But  just  before  his  ascension  at  the  Mount  of  Olives  he 
bade  his  disciples  stay  at  Jerusalem  until  they  should  re- 
ceive the  Holy  Spirit  whom  he  promised  to  send  them 
from  the  Father. 

In  obedience  to  the  Master's  request  the  apostles  re- 
mained in  Jerusalem  awaiting  the  realization  of  his  prom- 
ise to  send  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  expectation 
Pentecost.  was  fulfilled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when 
the  Spirit  came  upon  them.  His  descent  was 
externally  symbolized  by  the  appearance  of  tongues  of 
flame  which  fell  upon  each  apostle.  At  the  same  time 
other  extraordinary  manifestations  called  the  attention  of 
many  residents  of  the  city  and  strangers  from  all  parts  of 
the  world,  who  were  gathered  in  it,  to  the  place  where  the 
disciples  were  assembled.  The  apostle  Peter,  acting  as  the 
spokesman  of  these  in  explanation  of  the  strange  things 
that  had  happened,  preached  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Messiah. 
Three  thousand  immediately  believed  on  Jesus  and  were 
baptized.  Encouraged  by  this  success  and  enlightened 
as  well  as  emboldened  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  disciples 
now  preached  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  in  the  temple  and 
elsewhere,  and,  although  opposed  by  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  their  message  met  with  favor  and  acceptance 
among  the  common  people.  A  community  of  about  five 
tliousand  believers  grew  around  the  apostles,  all  of  whom 
were  characterized  by  religious  fervor,  manifesting  itself 
in  a  joyful  and  devotional  disposition  and  in  an  exceptional 
development  of  fraternal  love,  leading  them  to  have  and 
enjoy  all  things  in  common. 


20  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  harmony  which  prevailed  in  the  Christian  com- 
munity was  interrupted,  but  very  slightly,  by  the  com- 
plaints of  some  who  had  been  neglected  in 
Su^t"y '  "aIT-'  the  distribution  of  the  necessities  of  life  held, 
pointmentof  as  has  been  said,  and  used  in  common.  These 
Deacons.  were  Hellcnists— Grecians, — including  perhaps 

Jews,  who  had  through  residence  in  Greek-speaking  com- 
munities, adopted  the  Greek  language  and  Greek  customs, 
and  proselytes  to  Judaism  from  among  Greek-speaking 
heathen.  Accordingly,  seven  men  were  chosen,  and  the 
name  of  "  deacon  "  was  given  them,  in  order  that  they 
might  superintend  the  distribution  at  the  table.  Thus 
with  the  increasing  need  for  organization  as  brought  to 
light  upon  occasion,  the  community  organized  itself  by 
appointing  suitable  officers. 

Thus  far  the  Church  was,  as  far  as  we  know,  limited  to 
Jerusalem  and  consisted  of  Jews  and  Hellenists.  The 
occasion  which  served  as  the  first  impulse 
Strhen°'"°^  towards  the  carrying  of  the  gospel  beyond 
these  limits  was  furnished  by  the  conduct  and 
experiences  of  one  of  these  newly  appointed  deacons. 
The  zeal  of  Stephen  in  disseminating  the  knowledge  of 
Jesus  Christ  and  urging  men  to  accept  him,  led  to  his 
being  arrested  and  brought  before  the  Sanhedrin.  As 
he  boldly  preached  the  new  dispensation  even  in  this  pres- 
ence, he  was  stoned  to  death  and  at  the  same  time  a 
severe  persecution  arose,  scattering  the  disciples  into  ad- 
jacent regions. 

Wherever  they  went,  however,  the  disciples  made  known 
the  new  "  way "  and  gained  adherents  to  it.  Philip 
preached  at  Samaria,  Peter  and  John  recog- 
Samari!i°^^"  nizcd  and  extended  his  work,  and  thus  Chris- 
tianity passed  out  of  strict  Judaism.  For  the 
admission  of  Samaritans  into  the  brotherhood  was  a  rad- 
ical departure  from  the  narrow  views  of  the  strict  Jews, 
who  hated  the  Samaritans  even  worse  than  the  heathen. 
At  Samaria  the  apostles  were  called  upon  to  contend  with 
a  peculiar  danger — that  from  selfish  impostors.  Simon, 
called  the  magician,  externally  embraced  Christianity, 
but  when  it  was  found  that  his  motive  and  intention  were 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  21 

to  f;;ain  glory  and  wealth  for  himself  by  so  doing,  he  was 
reprimanded  and  cast  out  of  the  Church. 

Besides  the  Samaritans,  other  semi-Jewish  elements 
were  admitted  into  the  Church  during  this  transitional 
period  (A.  D.  30-37).  Philip  was  directed 
Preaching  to  ^q  prcach  Christ  to  the  eunuch  of  Queen  Can- 
iose>es.  (j^Qg^  an  Ethiopian,  and  eventually  baptized 
him.  Peter  was  similarly  directed  to  lead  the  Roman 
centurion  Cornelius  into  the  Church  through  the  preaching 
of  the  grace  of  God  and  baptism.  Both  of  these  conver- 
sions were  conversions  not  from  Judaism,  but  from  that 
class  of  heathen  who  had  been  attracted  by  Judaism  and 
attached  themselves  more  or  less  intimately  with  it  as 
proselytes. 

But  the  broadening  effect  of  the  persecution  accompany- 
ing the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  did  not  rest  with  the  ad- 
mission of  the  intermediate  classes  (Samari- 
Preachingto  (-^^^s  and  proselytcs)  into  the  Church.  Cer- 
tain "men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene  "  who  per- 
haps had  heard  Peter  himself  report  the  conversion  of 
Cornelius  to  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem,  undertook  at 
Antioch  to  preach  the  gospel  to  pure  Gentiles.  Their 
labors  met  with  large  success.  "  A  great  number  that 
believed  turned  unto  the  Lord."  The  church  at  Jerusa- 
lem, on  hearing  of  this,  sent  Barnabas  to  inquire  into  the 
matter.  Barnabas  found  all  the  marks  of  the  work  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  this  new  movement,  and  gladly  recognized 
it.  It  was  these  disciples  at  Antioch  who  first  had  the 
name  of  "  Christian  "  applied  to  them. 

Meantime  the  man  who  was  to  lead  this  new  departure 
in  the  Church  was  being  prepared   by  a  series   of  provi- 
dences.    This   was   Saul  of  Tarsus.     At  the 
Conversion  of     martyrdom    of  Stephen,    Saul  is   reported   as 

Paul.  -'  ,  ,    .       '  J.     ,,  '  ,  r 

present  and  taking  care  of  the  garments  ot 
those  who  stoned  the  martyr,  as  well  as  "  consenting  to 
his  death."  His  parentage  and  previous  education  both 
tended  to  make  him  a  zealous  persecutor  of  Christians. 
He  was  a  Jew  of  pure  lineage,  a  strict  Pharisee,  trained 
at  the  feet  of  the  celebrated  rabbi  Gamaliel  at  Jerusalem, 
though  a  native   of   the   great  commercial  city  of  Tarsus 


22  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  a  Roman  citizen.  During  the  persecution  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Stephen  he  took  an  active  part. 
While  on  a  journey  to  Damascus  to  search  for  Christians, 
in  order  to  bring  them  captive  to  Jerusalem,  he  was  struck 
blind  by  a  vision  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  His  conver- 
sion followed  and  was  complete.  After  a  brief  inter- 
course with  Ananias  and  other  Christians  at  Damascus, 
he  spent  several  years  in  meditation  and  subordinate 
labors  as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  It 
was  during  this  period  of  his  life  that  Barnabas  sought  for 
him  and  brought  him  to  Antioch  and  associated  him  with 
himself  in  building  up  the  church  at  Antioch. 

The  church  at  Antioch   soon   grew  to  be  aggressive  in 

communicating  the  gospel  to  others.     In  connection  with 

one  of  the  services    of  worship    held   by  the 

First  Missionary  church   and,  undcr  the  special   guiding  influ- 

Jouniey.  .    .  o  o 

ence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Saul  and  Barnabas 
were  set  apart  to  the  work  of  taking  the  gospel  to  the  ad- 
jacent regions.  Accordingly  they  undertook  what  has  been 
called  Paul's  "  First  Missionary  Journey."  Starting  from 
Antioch  they  went  to  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  thence 
through  Pamphylia,  Pisidia,  and  Lycaonia,  returning  to 
Antioch  to  report  of  their  work.  Their  method  of  proced- 
ure was  at  first  to  preach  to  the  Jews  in  connection  with 
the  synagogue  service  ;  but  as  many  proselytes  of  the 
gate,  both  men  and  w'omen,  were  converted  under  this 
preaching,  and  the  Jews  broke  out  in  violent  opposition, 
especially  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  the  missionaries  began  to 
preach  directly  to  the  Gentiles.  It  was  during  the  early 
part  of  this  journey  that  Saul  appears  as  Paul. 

The  continued  growth  of  the  church  at  Antioch  and  the 
accession  of  a  large  number  of  Gentiles  raised  the  ques- 
tion of  the  relation  of  these  Gentile  Christians 
Question  con-  to  the  Mosaic  law.  Some  held  that  converts 
ChrisJfa^s^"'"^  from  paganism  should  be  admitted  into  the 
Christian  Church  upon  profession  of  their  faith, 
and  baptism.  Others  insisted  that  they  should  be  cir- 
cumcised and  held  subject  to  the  whole  law.  In  other 
words  the  Judaistic  party  considered  Christianity  as  a 
mere  continuation  of  Judaism,  and  would  require  converts 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  23 

from  heathenism  to  become  first  "  proselytes  of  righteous- 
ness "  before  admitting  them  to  the  Church,  while  the 
Pauline  party  looked  upon  the  gospel  as  the  fulfillment, 
and  therefore  the  substitute,  of  the  old  law,  and  would 
admit  such  converts  into  the  Church  directly.  The  contro- 
versy assumed  large  proportions,  and  appears  to  have  been 
mooted  wherever  the  gospel  w\is  accepted  by  Gentiles. 

The  question  as  it  affected  the  church  at  Antioch  was 

referred  to  an  Assembly  of  representative  Christians  at 

Jerusalem,  held  perhaps  in  A.  D.  50.    Paul  and 

Assembly  at       Eamabas    with    "certain   others"    were  com- 

Jerusalem.  ...  i  i  i  »        •       i 

missioned  to  represent  the  church  at  Antioch. 
The  Assembly  having  heard  the  reports  of  these  represent- 
atives from  Antioch  and  the  views  of  the  chief  apostles, 
Peter  and  James  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  decreed  that  the 
Gentiles  should  not  be  compelled  to  observe  the  ritual  law, 
and  recommended  that  they  should  abstain  from  cer- 
tain idolatrous  customs  offensive  to  their  Jewish  brethren. 
This  decision  was  communicated  to  the  Antiochene  church 
by  delegates  of  the  Assembly  at  Jerusalem. 

Soon  after   the  communication   of  the   decision  of  the 
Assembly  at  Antioch,  Paul   undertook  to  visit  the  Chris- 
tian communities  established  on  his  first  mis- 
Second  Mis-      sionarv   iournev,  but   instead  of  returning   to 

sionary  Journey.  .     ■',    J     ,  •{ '  ,  , .    ,       ,     ,  .        °     , 

Antioch  when  he  had  accomphshed  this  work, 
he  turned  his  face  northward  and  went  through  Syria  into 
Asia  Minor,  preaching  in  Cilicia,  Phrygia  and  Galatia. 
He  then  crossed  into  Europe,  establishing  the  first  Euro- 
pean Christian  community  at  Philippi,  and  thence  went 
southward  into  Greece  as  far  as  Corinth.  Here  he  spent 
more  time  than  at  other  places,  attempting  to  overcome 
the  natural  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  gospel.  Having 
succeeded  in  founding  a  church  on  a  solid  basis,  he  went 
to  Ephesus,  and  thence  to  Jerusalem,  thus  closing  his 
second  missionary  journey. 

On   a  third  missionary  tour  Paul  again  visited  Galatia 
and    Phrygia,  proceeding   thence  to    Ephesus,  w-hich  he 

made  the  scene  of  an  energetic  missionary 
Third  Mis-        effort:  thence   he    went    to    Macedonia    and 

sionary  Journey.  '  .  ,  r    'i>  ivr-l    . 

Greece,  returning  by  way  of    1  roas,    Miletus 


24  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  Tyre,  Ptolemais  and  C^sarea,  to  Jerusalem  in  time 
for  the  Passover  of  the  year  58  A.  D.  Here  his  presence  in 
the  temple  irritated  the  Jews  and  occasioned  a  violent 
disturbance,  which  was  quelled  only  by  the  arrival  on  the 
scene  of  a  company  of  Roman  soldiers.  By  these  he  was 
carried  as  a  prisoner  to  the  garrison.  Making  known  his 
Roman  citizenship,  he  escaped  violence,  but  was  detained 
for  two  years  by  Felix,  and  under  Festus,  the  successor 
of  Felix,  he  appealed  to  Caesar  and  was  taken  to  Rome  in 
A.  D.  60  or  61.  At  Rome  he  was  kept  in  custody,  but  al- 
lowed a  considerable  amount  of  freedom  ;  so  that  he  con- 
tinued to  preach  the  gospel  to  those  who  came  to  his 
"  lodging."  Thus  were  passed  the  years  61-63  A.  D.  He 
was  then  set  free  and  engaged  in  other  missionary  labors  of 
which  only  traditional  accounts  are  left.  Finally  he  was 
arrested  a  second  time  in  A.  D.  67  and  put  to  death,  as  tra- 
dition has  it,  on  the  same  occasion  as  Peter,  though  being 
a  Roman  citizen,  the  form  of  his  martyrdom  was  through 
the  sword. 

Of  the  labors  of  the  other  apostles  there  are  but  scanty 
items  of  information,   and   most   of  these  are    based    on 

traditions.  It  appears  quite  clear  that  the 
Peter.  apostle    Peter    was  not  for  twenty-five  years 

the  bishop  of  the  Roman  Church  ;  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  truth  of  the  tradition  that  he 
spent  his  last  days  there,  and  that  he  was  put  to  death  by 
crucifixion  on  the  same  day  as  Paul.  It  has  been  al- 
leged on  the  basis  of  a  mystical  allusion  in  one  of  his 
epistles  that  his  ministry  was  passed  in  the  Mesopotamian 
Babylon  (i  Peter  v.  13).  But  this  is  perhaps  a  name  used 
by  Christians  at  this  period  to  designate  Rome. 

James  the  son  of  Zebedee  was   early  beheaded  by  com- 
mand of   Herod  Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  2)  before  the  year  44 

A.  D.  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  became 
James.  the  leader  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  and  was 

distinguished  for  uprightness  of  character,  for 
which  reason  he  was  surnamed  the  Just.  He  labored  in 
Jerusalem  and  suffered  martyrdom,  being  for  his  faith  in 
Jesus  thrown  down  by  the  people  from  the  pinnacle  of 
the  temple  and  stoned. 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  25 

Andrew  is  said  to   have  preached  in  Scythia    and    to 
have  suffered  martyrdom  by  being  bound  to  a  cross  with 

cords.  Philip  also  preached  in  Scythia 
The  other  Apos-(^according  to  tradition)  and  was  crucified  and 

stoned  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia.  Jude  was 
bishop  of  Edessa  in  Syria  and  was  put  to  death  bv  the 
thrust  of  a  lance.  Thomas,  Bartholomew,  Matthew'  and 
Simon  Zelotes  visited  and  preached  in  distant  regions, 
such  as  Parthia,  India,  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  and  Cyrene. 

John,  the    beloved   disciple,    undoubtedly  took    charge 
of  the   church   at  Ephesus  after  the    departure  of  Paul. 

Here  he  lived  to  an  extreme  old  age,  and 
John.  hence  he  exerted  a  large  influence  throughout 

the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  breaking  the  force 
of  false  teachings,  both  Jewish  and  heathen.  In  his  la- 
ter years  he  is  said  to  have  been  carried  into  the  meet- 
ings of  the  Christians,  and  to  have  been  in  the  habit 
of  repeating  the  single  exhortation,  "Little  children,  love 
one  another;  "  and  when  asked  whether  he  had  no  other 
message,  he  replied  "  No  ;  because  to  love  one  another  is 
to  fulfill  all  the  law."  He  was  undoubtedly  exiled  to 
Patmos  where  he  wrote  the  Apocalypse,  whether  before 
or  after  his  settlement  in  Ephesus,  under  the  reign  of 
Nero  or  of  Domitian,  is  a  disputed  question  among  Bibli- 
cal critics.  He  died  under  Trajan,  or  about  the  year  100 
A.  D.,  and  thus  his  death  constitutes  the  natural  end  of  the 
Apostolic  age  of  the  Church. 

The    relations   of    the  ("hristian    Church   to  the  world 
during  this  period  must  be   viewed  from  the   standpoint 

of  its  origin.  It  appeared  to  be  at  first  noth- 
The  Christian     ing  but  a  form  of  Judaism.      The   heathen    at 

Church  and  the      ,  °  .        .  .  . 

World.  the  outset  saw  m  it  nothing  more  than  a  sect 

of  Jews.  The  Jews  themselves  saw  the  gulf 
between  them  and  the  Christians  :  they  repudiated  and 
harassed  the  heretics,  as  they  regarded  them,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  their  opportunities.  But  before  the  Roman 
authorities,  as  a  form  of  Judaism  Christianity  was  rec- 
ognized as  a  legal  religion  and  protected.  Accordingly, 
it  was  also  protected  from  the  molestations  of  fanatical 
Jews.     As  soon,  however,  as  the   difference  between   the 


2  6  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

Jewish  religion  and  Christianity  became  apparent,  its 
legitimacy  in  the  Roman  world  vanished.  Moreover  the 
laws  of  Rome  were  set  against  the  holding  of  unli- 
censed meetings,  the  organization  of  fraternities  and 
proselytism.  Officially  the  Church  might  at  any  time 
have  been  viewed  as  a  violation  of  these  laws.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  authorities  were  slow  to  take  cognizance  of  the 
existence  of  the  Church.  It  was  rather  the  common 
people  whose  animosity  was  roused  against  the  Christians, 
mainly  on  account  of  their  insisting  on  spiritual,  that  is 
to  say,  imageless  worship,  which  was  regarded  as  atheism, 
and  their  rigid  morality  and  opposition  to  prevalent  vices, 
which  were  regarded  as  innocent.  The  persecutions 
endured  by  Christians  during  this  age  were  therefore  of  a 
private  and  limited  nature. 

The  persecution   under  Nero  (A.  D.  64)  though  public, 
owed  its  origin  not  to  a  political  but  to  a  personal  motive. 

A  great  fire  had  broken  out  in  the  city  and 
unde^Nlro^and'^^*^  destroyed  a  large  part  of  it.  The  people 
Domitian.         suspcctcd  the  cmpcror  of  being  the  incendiary, 

or,  at  any  rate,  of  rejoicing  in  the  event.  To 
turn  away  suspicion  from  himself,  Nero  accused  the 
Christians  of  the  crime,  and  a  large  number  of  them 
were  arrested,  convicted  and,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  Tacitus  (Annal.  xv.  44),  punished.  Some  were 
covered  with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  and  worried  to  death 
by  dogs.  Others  were  nailed  to  crosses.  Others  were 
clothed  in  garments  covered  with  tar  and  set  on  fire 
and  their  burning  bodies  used  as  torches  at  nightfall. 
A  similar  outbreak  of  hostility  towards  the  Christians 
for  unknown  reasons  took  place  under  Domitiant  (A.  D. 
81-96). 

An    event    which  was    destined   to   exercise    great  in- 
fluence over  the   fortunes  of  the  Church  took  place  the 

year  after  the  death  of  Nero.  This  was  the 
Faiiofjeru-       f^H   of   Jerusalem.     A    rebellion  headed    by 

Sill  cm 

Galilean  zealots  broke  out  in  Palestine.  Ves- 
pasian, while  engaged  in  putting  down  this  rebellion,  was 
raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Roman  legions.  He  com- 
mitted to  his  son  Titus  the  task  of  subduing  the  Jews  and 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  27 

assumed  the  imperial  authority.  Titus  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  after  a  fierce  and  cruel  struggle  he  captured 
the  city.  The  temple  was  burned  either  intentionally  or 
by  accident.  The  mother  church  also  perished  in  this 
calamity.  But  from  another  point  of  view  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  proved  a  benefit  to  Christianity.  Many  Jewish 
Christians  were  weaned  over  from  their  love  for  the  old 
forms,  and  the  break  between  Christianity  and  Judaism 
was  rendered  final  and  absolute. 

The   form    of   government    of     the     apostolic    Church 
was   extremely    simple.     Christ  appointed  a    "  ministry." 
He  used  no  names  to   designate  the  different 
Church"^  '''^     classes  or  kinds  of  ministers  that  were  to  serve 
his   Church;  but  as  the  work  of  the  Church 
became  more  and  more  diversified  in  the  hands 
of  the    disciples,  and    the  outward  needs  of   the  Church 
became  large  enough  to  call  for  special  forms  of  work  and 
office,  such  offices  were  created.     In  this  process  of  divi- 
sion of  labor  the  Church  probably  used  as  its  models  other 
organizations     already   in  existence.       In    Palestine    and 
wherever    the  Christian  community   was  an    offshoot    of 
Judaism,  no  doubt  the  synagogue  furnished  an  example 
of  organization.     Among   the   Gentiles,  especially  where 
Roman     institutions    prevailed,    the    sodalitia   or   collegia 
(clubs  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  help,  and  especially  for 
the  burial  of  the  dead)  must  have  been  of  use  in  suggest- 
ing  forms  of  organization.     At  any  rate  the  offices  found 
in  the  churches  of  the  apostolic    age  are  in  general  (i) 
that  of  the  Presbyter   ("  elder  ")  or  bishop  ("  overseer  "). 
That  these  titles  were  used  interchangeably,  as  indicative 
of  one  and  the  same  office,  is  manifest  from  a  compari- 
son of  verses  17  and  28  of  Acts  XX.     The  former  is  the 
Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  zaka7i    (elder)   and  was 
adopted  from  the  synagogue  ;  it  was  indicative  of  dignity 
and  rule.     The  latter  title  was  of  Greek  origin,  indicative 
merely  of  oversight  and  government.     It  was  the  duty  of 
the  officer  bearing  this   double  title   to  watch  over  the 
flock,  to  "feed"  and  govern  it.     (2)  To  this  was  added 
the    office    of    deacon,  commissioned    with  the    task    of 
administering  temporal  affairs.     Many  other  special  func- 


28  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

tions  and  labors  are  mentioned,  particularly  in  the  earlier 
portion  of  the  period,  but  these  were  evidently  meant  for 
specific  ends,  which  they  accomplished  and  thus  put  an 
end  to  their  own  reason  for  existence. 

The   form   of  worship    of   the   primitive   Church    was 
also  exceedingly  simple.     Mectinr^s  were  held  commonly 

on  the  first  day  of  the  week  in  private  houses 
Worship.  or  in  some  public  building  appropriated  to  that 

purpose.  At  these  meetings  prayer  was 
ofifered,  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  and  letters  from 
apostles  were  read,  psalms  and  perhaps  hymns  were  sung, 
and  words  "  of  exhortation  "  were  spoken  freely  by  any  one 
who  might  feel  moved  to  do  this. 

Whether    on  special   occasions,  or  in  connection   with 
each  weekly  service  of  worship   it  is  not  possible  to  tell, 

the  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated.  This  was 
The  Lord's        \^  ^YiQ  earliest  times  associated  with  a  regular 

meal,  as  at  its  first  institution.  This  meal, 
called  a  love  feast  (Agape),  was  liable  to  abuse,  as  we 
learn  from  Paul's  rebuking  such  abuse  in  the  Corinthian 
Church  (i  Cor.  xi.  17  seq.).  The  fraternal  relation  of  all 
Christians  was  signified  at  such  love  feasts  by  the  "holy 
kiss  "  or  "  kiss  of  love." 

Baptism     was    administered     upon     admission    to    the 
Christian  community  as  the  symbol  of  the  cleansing  of  the 

soul  in  regeneration.  It  was  "  into  Christ " 
Baptism.  or  "  into  the  name  of  Christ  "    and  not  only 

adults,  but  households  were  its  subjects. 
As  it  was  a  mere  symbol  of  cleansing,  sometimes  sprink- 
ling, sometimes  effusion  of  water,  and  sometimes,  per- 
haps, immersion  in  water  were  employed,  each  mode 
being  regarded  as  sufficient  and  valid. 

Other  practices  of  a  temporary  or  local  nature  in  the 
earliest  Church   were  the  "  laying  on   of  hands,"  which 

followed  baptism  and  signified  the  imparta- 
OtherOrdi-       ^[q^   Qf  (-^g  Holy  Spirit:  and  annointing  with 

nances.  j        i  >  tj 

oil,  which  was  accompanied  by  prayer  for  the 
sick.  The  only  form  of  discipline  was  the  exclusion  of 
the  guilty  person  from  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  disfellow- 
ship. 


THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE. 


29 


Literary  activity  in   the  Christian  Church  during  the 

apostoHc  age  was   not    extraordinarily    prohfic,  but  the 

products  of  it  bear  the  marks  of  special  divine 

Literary  Activ-  inspiration    and   are    distinguished    from   all 

ity.     Writing  of        ^  .   .  ,  .         °         ,  , 

the  New  Testa-  Other  Writings  by  a  vast  impassable  gulf.     Al- 
""^"''  though  it  is  not  at  all  certain  in  what  order  the 

books  of  the   New  Testament  were  produced,  yet  it  is 
likely  that  the  first  to  see  the  light  was  the  Epistle  of 
James,  being  written  before  the  difference  between  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity  became   definite  and  sharp.     This 
was  probably  between  A.  D.  44  and  48.     Next  came  the 
earlier  epistles  of  the  apostle  Paul.     i.  and  2  Thessaloni- 
ans  were  written  from  Cornith  in  A.  D.  52  or  53  upon  the 
arrival  of  news  from   the  church  at  Thessalonica.     Then 
came  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  from  Ephesus  about  A.  D. 
57   followed  in  rather  quick  succession  by  the  two  letters 
to  the  Corinthians  and  that  to  the  Romans,  perhaps  during 
the  course  of  the  next  year.     The  Epistles  to  the  Ephesi- 
ans,  Philippians,  Colossians  and  to  Philemon  were  written 
from  Rome  during  Paul's  first   imprisonment  in  that  city. 
And  the  Pastoral  epistles  (i  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus)  dur- 
ing the  apostle's  second  imprisonment  or  about  A.  D.  67. 
Somewhat  earlier  than  the  last  letters  of  Paul  appeared 
the  book  of  Acts  (A.  D.  63)  giving  an  account  of  the  spread 
of  Christianity  from  Jerusalem  through  Samaria  and  "unto 
the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth."     The  First  Epistle  of 
Peter  could  not  have  been  much  later  than  A.  D.  64  or  65 
or  the  era  of  the  Neronian  persecution,  as  it  alludes  to  the 
sufferings  of  Christians  for   the  "  name,"  but  the  second 
bears  in  itself  signs  of  a  later  date   and   has  been  some- 
times attributed  to  some  other   author  than  the  apostle, 
perhaps  his  companion  and  secretary.     It  was  written  not 
much  earlier  than  A.  D.  70.    The  date  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude 
may  be  only  approximately  given  as  A.  D.  65-68,  and  the 
object  of  it  was  evidently  to  correct  errors   in  life,  into 
which  Christians  found  themselves  tempted  to  fall.     The 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  written  before  the  destruction 
of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  but  while  serious  temptations 
and  troubles  were  threatening  the  Christians  to  whom  it  is 
addressed.     It  must  have  been  produced  therefore  about 


30  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

A.  D.  69.  The  first  three  Gospels,  commonly  called  "the 
Synoptics"  were  undoubtedly  based  on  earlier  sources  in 
which  there  was  very  much  of  the  material  now  forming 
the  common  stock  of  the  synoptic  accounts.  But  whether 
these  sources  were  one  or  more,  or  whether  they  were  oral 
or  written  down,  cannot  as  yet  be  definitely  asserted. 
They  were  probably  composed  between  A.  D.  60  and  70 
Of  the  writings  bearing  the  name  of  the  apostle  John,  the 
book  of  The  Revelation  was,  as  some  expositors  maintain, 
the  first  to  appear  (about  A.  D.  67) ;  the  Gospel  and  the 
Catholic  epistles  were  composed  about  the  close  of  the 
apostle's  life  or  between  A.  D.  95  and  100.  Many  Biblical 
scholars  assign  a  later  date  to  the  book  of  The  Revela- 
tion, and  give  weighty  reasons  for  the  belief  that  it  also 
was  written  between  A.  D.  95  and  100. 

As  long  as  the   Church  was  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  apostles  errors  and  heresies  were  not  very 

common.  Still  there  were  tendencies  which 
Heresies.  readily  developed  into  dangerous  departures 

from  the  faith.  The  causes  of  these  were  the 
insistence  of  some  who  had  come  over  from  Judaism,  on 
more  of  the  Jewish  elements  than  were  consistent  with 
the  development  of  Christianity.  This  tendency  led  into 
Ebionism.  On  the  other  hand,  heathen  philosophy  and 
morals  were  mingled  with  Christian  belief  and  practice  by 
some,  and  the  result  was  the  rise  of  incipent  Gnosticism 
and  corrupt  or  immoral  sects,  like  the  Nicolaitans. 
Finally  certain  persons  claiming  to  be  Christ  appeared 
leading  away  many.  Of  these  Dositheus  in  Samaria  and 
Menander  who  claimed  divinity  and  promised  to  impart 
physical  immortality  are  especially  named. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE   (a.  D.  IOO-170). 

At  the  end  of  the  apostolic  age  Christianity  appears  on 
a  surprisingly  large  area  of  territory.     In  addition  to  the 

regions  in  which  it  had  taken  root  firmly  during 
Chris^ttanhy.       ^'^^  preceding  era,  it  is  found  also  in  other  and 

remoter  places.  Palestine  in  spite  of  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  still  continues  to  be  a  center  and  source  of 
Christian  influence ;  but  the  Christianity  which  now  em- 
anates from  this  region  is  no  longer  characterized  by 
those  peculiarities  which  made  the  name  Judaistic  Christi- 
anity appropriate  to  it.  Antioch  also  served  as  a  center 
of  missionary  effort,  as  during  the  days  of  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas. Edessa,  the  chief  town  of  Osrhoene  must  have  begun 
at  this  time  to  assume  some  importance  as  a  Christian 
center.  A  number  of  traditions  and  legends  are  associ- 
ated with  the  origin  of  Edessene  Christianity  and  a  local 
type  of  church-life  and  literature  emanates  from  it  fitly 
called  Syrian.  In  Asia  Minor,  besides  Ephesus,  Smyrna 
appears  as  a  large  center  of  Christian  influence.  In  Greece 
the  place  of  priority  belongs  still  to  Corinth.  In  Western 
Europe,  passing  by  Rome,  as  already  well  known  as  a 
flourishing  Christian  center,  we  find  Gaul  occupied  in  two 
at  least  of  its  important  cities,  Lyons  and  Vienne.  In 
Africa,  Alexandria  naturally  served  as  a  basis  of  opera- 
tions. From  here  no  doubt  went  forth  those  who  planted 
the  Coptic  church  as  well  as  the  Greek-speaking  churches 
of  the  Nile  Delta.  Traditions  which  cannot  be  readily 
verified  make  this  the  period  of  the  founding  of  churches 
in  the  British  Islands  also. 

This  wide-spread  diffusion  of  the  Christian  Church  led 

31 


32 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


to  its  being  noticed  with  greater  care  by  the  surrounding 

world.  The  first  and  most  noticeable  result 
dnJisherfrom'"of  this  scrutiny  was  that  the  distinction 
Judaism.  betwccn  Judaism  and  Christianity  was  clearly 

seen. 

The  Jews  themselves  did  not  submit  to  the  result  of  the 
war  which  terminated  with  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in 

A.  D.  70.  They  broke  out  in  rebellion  at  inter- 
The  Jews  after  yals.  The  most  serious  of  their  rebellions  was 
Jerusalem.         that  uudcr  Bar  Cochba,  an  impostor  claiming 

to  be  the  "Son  of  the  Star"  prophesied  in 
Num.  xxiv.  17.  With  his  fall  in  A.  D.  135,  Jerusalem  was 
reduced  to  a  pagan  city  and  renamed  as  ^lia  Capitolina. 
Jews  were  forbidden  to  enter  it  and  the  observance  of  the 
Jewish  law  was  prohil^ited.  This  prohibition  was  not  re- 
moved until  after  the  death  of  Hadrian  (A.  D.  138). 

With  the  extinction   of  the  political  independence  of 
Judaism    came   its    subjection    to   schools  of   rabbinical 

learning.  The  instinct  of  national  preserva- 
Rabbinicai        tJou  tumcd  to  the  tcachers  of  the  law  and 

made  the  people  without  formal  action  submit 
to  them  as  the  leaders  of  the  nation.  The  school  of 
rabbis  at  Jabneh  (Jamnia  between  Ashdod  and  Joppa) 
became  the  first  center  of  rabbinical  learning  and  power. 
The  president  of  the  school  (Nasi)  was  recognized  as  the 
spiritual  head  of  the  nation.  Later  the  school  at  Tiberias 
assumed  this  importance.  In  these  schools  was  begun 
that  consolidation  and  reduction  to  writing  of  the  tradi- 
tions which  appear  to-day  as  the  Talmud. 

By  the  Jews  the  Christians  were  regarded  as  apostates 
and  heretics,  and  a  peculiar  prayer,  or  rather  imprecation, 

was  formulated  and  used  against  them.  The 
Fhe'w'or'id.^  ^""^  pagans  looked  upon  the  Church  partly  through 

the  medium  of  misunderstanding  and  calumny, 
and  partly  through  the  medium  of  its  status  before  the 
civil  law,  with  respect  to  which  its  position  was  in  many 
points  antagonistic.  Popular  misunderstanding  may  be 
assigned  as  the  cause  of  the  accusation  of  atheism  brought, 
at  this  time,  against  Christians.  To  the  eyes  of  those 
accustomed  to  worship  visible  objects  it  was  no  doubt  a 


THE  SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE.  32 

clear  evidence  of  disbelief  in  any  God  for  one  to  abandon 
the  worship  of  the  temples  and  substitute  no  other  visible 
object  of  worship  in  their  place.  But  charges  of  incest  and 
Thyestian  banquets  were  also  made  against  the  Christians, 
being  no  doubt  slanderous  distortions  of  the  observance 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  "holy  kiss."  And  the 
charge  of  worshiping  a  monster  with  an  ass's  head  can 
only  be  the  jest  of  some  wag  turned  into  a  sober  charge 
in  the  absence  of  general  information.  All  these  charges 
were  also  readily  believed  because  of  the  desire  to  find 
something  objectionable  in  a  community  so  much  hated. 

The  status  of  the  Church   before  the   Roman  law  was 
affected  by  several  standing  laws  of  the  State,     (i)  The 

statute  against  the  worship  of  foreign  gods 
JhTchi^ch'"^   not  adopted  by   the   State  always   remained  a 

recognized  principle  in  the  Roman  law,  al- 
though the  religions  and  gods  of  conquered  nations  were 
constructively  recognized  as  "  adopted  by  the  State." 
This  allowed  Christianity  as  a  legitimate  religion  so  long 
as  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  sect  of  Judaism.  But  when 
its  distinctness  from  Judaism  was  perceived,  and  when 
Judaism  itself  was  put  under  the  ban  because  of  the  in- 
subordination of  the  people  during  Hadrian's  reign, 
Christianity  came  into  conflict  with  this  law.  (2)  The 
law  against  the  formation  of  societies  stood  in  the  way 
of  the  organization  of  churches.  There  were  indeed  ex- 
ceptions to  this  law,  but  they  were  based  upon  conditions 
with  which  the  Christians  could  not  comply.  They  must 
evidently  appear  to  violate  it.  (3)  The  law  against  magic, 
though  not  violated  by  the  Christians  might  appear  to  be  ; 
their  miracles  of  healing  and  expulsion  of  demons  were 
construed  as  acts  of  magic.  For  the  violation  of  these 
laws  the  Christians  incurred  liability  to  two  charges : 
(i)  Sacrilege,  and  (2)  "  Lcesa  7najcstas,''  or  defiance  of  the 
authority  of  the  government. 

Under  such  circumstances  it  was  natural  for  the  Roman 
government  to  take  a  definite  legal  stand  in  the  matter.     It 

was  during  the  reign  of  Trajan  (A.  D.  98-117) 
t^'xrllan^"'^'^    that  We   find  such  a  definite  policy  suggested 

and  outlined  in  a  letter  of  Pliny  the  Younger, 
3 


34  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

procurator  of  Bithynia,  Pliny,  perplexed  as  to  what  he 
should  do  with  the  numerous  Christians  in  the  province 
over  which  he  was  appointed  to  preside,  refers  the  ques- 
tion to  the  emperor  himself.  He  asks  whether  all  Chris- 
tians should  be  treated  alike  or  some  distinction  made 
between  the  weaker  and  the  stronger;  whether  they 
should  be  punished  for  the  mere  fact  of  being  Christians. 
He  then  states  his  practice  up  to  the  time  of  writing. 
He  had  been  in  the  habit  of  asking  of  them  whether  they 
were  Christians.  If  they  confessed  that  they  were,  he 
commanded  them  to  recant.  If  they  refused  as  many 
as  three  times,  he  punished  them  for  obstinacy.  The 
emperor  in  his  answer  (rescript)  approves  this  course, 
and  adds  that  Christians  need  not  be  sought  out,  but 
only  dealt  with  when  brought  before  the  government 
by  responsible  accusers.  Anonymous  charges  should 
be  disregarded.  As  this  course  should  apply  in  Bithynia 
only.  But  the  principle  involved  could  hardly  fail 
to  spread  throughout  the  empire.  As  a  matter  of  fact  a 
persecution  arose  at  this  time  in  which  some  eminent 
Christians  suffered  martydrom.  Of  this  number  were 
Simeon,  an  aged  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  reputed  to  be  a 
"relative  of  the  Lord  "  and  of  the  line  of  David,  crucified 
in  A.  D.  98  and  Ignatius  who  was  cast  to  the  lions  in 
Rome  in  A.  D.  115. 

The  policy  of  Hadrian  (A.  D.  1 17-138)  towards  the 
Christians  was  not  essentially  different  from  that  of 
Trajan.  He  continued  the  persecutions 
Hadrian.  against  them.      But  to  avoid  the  tumults  which 

accompanied  the  execution  of  the  laws  against 
them  he  ordered  that  they  should  in  all  cases  be  tried 
in  due  form. 

The  son  and  successor  of  Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius  (A. 
D.  138-161)  is  not  known  to  have  instituted  any  change  in 
the  attitude  of  the  government  towards  Chris- 
Mar°cul"AureHus  tians.  Authentic  accounts  of  persecutions 
are,  however,  lacking  during  his  reign.  His 
successor,  Marcus  Aurelius  (A.  D.  161-180)  was  a  Stoic 
philosopher  and  a  man  of  upright  conduct.  But  he  despised 
excitement,  especially  religious   enthusiasm,  and  had  no 


THE  SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE. 


35 


sympathy  with  the  belief  in  immortality  held  so  tena- 
ciously by  the  Christians.  Accordingly  he  allowed  per- 
secutions against  them  to  revive  and  increase  in  rigor.  A 
fresh  wave  of  hostility  swept  over  the  Church  during  his 
reign,  which  counted  among  its  victims  the  Christian 
apologist,  Justin  Martyr,  put  to  death  probably  at  Rome  in 
A.D.166,  and  Polycarp,  the  bishop  of  Smyrna,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  in  Smyrna,  besides  a  large  number  of  Chris- 
tians, members  of  the  churches  of  Lyons  and  Vienne  in 
Gaul.  It  was  here  that  some  remarkable  martyrdoms 
were  endured  especially  by  the  slave  Blandina  and  by 
Ponticus  and  Pothinus,  the  aged  bishop.  It  is  not 
quite  certain  whether  Marcus  Aurelius  went  further  than 
his  predecessors  in  persecuting  by  ordering  that  Chris- 
tians should  be  sought  out  and  punished.  Towards  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  while  on  an  expedition  against  the 
Marcomanni,  the  emperor  is  said  to  have  relaxed  his 
enmity  towards  the  Church,  being  led  thereto  by  a  re- 
markable answer  to  the  prayers  of  Christian  soldiers. 
His  army  was  in  great  suffering  and  some  danger  on  ac- 
count of  the  lack  of  water  when  the  "  I'hundering  Legion," 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  Christians,  prayed  for  rain 
and  rain  fell  forthwith  accompanied  by  a  thunder-storm. 
At  any  rate  the  severity  of  persecution  was  after  this  date 
softened. 

The  literary  activity  of  Christians  during  this  age  was 
shaped  first  by  the  ordinary  need  of  instruction  in  the 
Apostolic  "^^  order  of  things,  and  second  by  the  need 

Fathers.  of  explanation  and  defence  before  the  pagan 

^""^^  ■  empire  and  the  world  in  general.     The  first  of 

these  needs  gave  birth  to  the  class  of  writers  called  apos- 
tolic fathers  ;  the  second  to  the  apologists.  Of  the  apostolic 
fathers  the  earliest  is  Clement  of  Rome,  reputed  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Domitian.  Two  epistles  are 
ascribed  to  him,  of  which  only  the  first  is  genuine,  written 
either  in  A.  D.  95  or  96.  It  is  addressed  to  the  church  at 
Corinth  and  urges  harmony  and  patient  submission  to 
authority.  It  also  alludes  to  the  subject  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body,  concerning  which  the  apostle  Paul  him- 
self  had    written    to  the  same    church.     The   so-called 


26  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Second  Epistle  of  Clement  was  probably  composed  as  a 
homily  about  A.  D.  135-145.  It  contains  exhortations  to 
repentance  and  good  works,  and  holds  up  future  rewards 
and  punishments  as  incentives  to  a  moral  life. 

The  Epistle  of  Barnabas  placed  by  some,  but  without 
sufficient  grounds,  even  earlier  than  Clement,  was  perhaps 
written    by   another   Barnabas    than    the    one 
Barnabas.  mentioned   in   the  Acts   as  the  fellow-mission- 

ary of  Paul.  It  is  intended  to  show  that  the 
meaning  and  importance  of  the  Old  Testament  depend 
on  their  reference  to  the  redemption  by  Christ.  It  is 
probably  a  product  of  the  last  years  of  the  first  century. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch  was  the  author  of  several  epistles 
to  churches  mainly  in  Asia  Minor  (A.  D.  115).  The  number 
of  these  and  the  exact  form  have  been  made 
Ignatius.  the  subjccts  of  discussion  and   difference  of 

opinion.  They  exist  in  a  longer  recension  of 
seven  and  in  a  shorter  one  of  three.  The  latter  is  now 
regarded  as  the  authentic  form.  Ignatius  is  of  importance 
as  a  witness  to  the  form  of  Christianity  at  this  time,  be- 
cause he  was  the  disciple  of  the  apostle  John,  and  even 
said  by  tradition  to  be  the  child  set  by  Jesus  in  the  midst 
of  his  disciples  (Matt,  xviii.  2).  He  wrote  his  epistles 
while  on  the  way  to  Rome  to  suffer  for  the  faith,  and  they 
are  therefore  full  of  exhortations  to  obey  the  officers  of 
the  Church. 

Hermas,  brother  of  Pius  bishop  of  Rome  (A. D. 142-157), 
wrote  an  unique  treatise   in   the  form   of  visions,  dreams 
and  similitudes  intended  to  stimulate  a  consist- 
Hermas.  cnt  Christian   life    and,  therefore,   abounding 

in  exhortations,  warnings  against  the  love  of 
pleasure,  against  an  earthly  mind,  and  against  apostacy 
in  persecutions.  The  doctrinal  element  is  lacking  in  this 
work. 

Closely  connected  with  the  epistles  of  Ignatius  is  that  of 
Polycarpof  Smyrna  (about  A. D.I  50)  to  the  Philippians,  prin- 
cipally consisting  "of  exhortations  to  sobriety 
Polycarp.  of  life  and  doctrine   in    the  midst  of  the  trials 

which  encompassed  them."  Contemporary  with 
Polycarp  was  Papias  of  Hierapolis,  whose  writings  would 


THE  SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE. 


37 


be  interesting  and  valuable  were  they  extant.  He  made 
it  his  business  to  go  about  and  collect  from  the  lips  of 
those  who  had  conversed  with  the  apostles  all  that  they 
had  to  report  regarding  the  Lord  and  his  sayings.  Thus 
he  put  together  five  books  principally  consisting  of  anec- 
dotes. Of  these  only  extracts  are  preserved  at  second 
hand  in  later  writers. 

In  the  same  group  of  writings  as  the   apostolic  fathers 
must  be  put  the  recently  discovered  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 

(about  A.  D.  loo),  a  sort  of  manual  summing 
die^TwIfve*       up   in   its  first  part  Christian  doctrine   under 

"The  two  Ways"  and  giving  some  instruc- 
tions regarding  the  conduct  of  worship  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  affairs  of  the  Church. 

The  apologists  began  to  write  as  soon  as  Christianity 
became  the  object  of  popular  and   imperial  persecution. 

They  addressed  their  defences  of  their  faith  to 
The  Apologists,  the  cmperor  and  to  the  people.     The  first  of 

these  writings  is  an  anonymous  letter  ad- 
dressed to  Diognetns  in  which  Christianity  is  set  over 
against  heathenism  and  Judaism,  and  shown  to  be  supe- 
rior. The  first  apologists  whose  names  are  known  are 
Quadratus  and  Aristides  (A.  D.  125).  They  endeavored  to 
defend  Christianity  before  Hadrian  by  addressing  their 
treatises  to  him.  Later  came  Claudius  Apollinaris  and 
Miltiades,  who  attempted  the  same  thing  with  Marcus 
Aurelius.  But  the  ablest  and  most  important  of  this  class 
of  writers  is  Justin  Martyr  (166).     Justin  was  originally  a 

Platonic  philosopher  ;  but  finding  no  satisfac- 
justin.  tion    for  his    religious    nature  in   philosophic 

systems,  he  was  attracted  by  Christianity,  and 
being  converted,  devoted  his  life  to  the  dissemination  of 
its  teachings,  which  he  did  as  a  traveling  sophist  (teacher 
of  philosophy).  Coming  to  Rome  he  addressed  two 
Apologies  \.o\}i\Q  emperor.  These  are  known  as  the  Zonger 
and  the  Shorter.  Besides  these  he  also  composed  a 
Dialogue  with  Trypho  the/etv,  being  a  defence  of  Chris- 
tianity as  against  Judaism. 

A  pupil  of  Justin's,  Tatian  the  Assyrian,  undertook  the 
task  of  undeceiving  the  people  of  their  misapprehension 


38  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  Christianity.     He  was  educated  in  Greek  learning  and 
wrote  a  Discourse  to  the  Greeks  (the  heathen), 
Tatian.  in  which    he   compares    the    Christian    faith 

with  paganism  and  vindicates  it  by  the  com- 
parison. He  also  drew  up  the  Diatessaroii.  This  was 
a  unification  of  the  accounts  of  the  four  Gospels  in 
one  narrative.  Tatian,  however,  joined  the  sect  of 
ascetics  who  rejected  marriage  and  the  use  of  flesh  and 
wine.  Another  important  apologist  was  Athenagoras, 
who  addressed  to  Marcus  Aurelius  a  Supplication  in 
behalf  of  the  Christians  and  wrote  besides  a  treatise  in 
defence  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  resurrection. 
Finally  Melito  of  Sardis  also  wrote  an  Apology  setting  forth 
the  Christian  faith  as  the  true  philosophy  ;  but  this  work  is 
not  extant. 

The    two  tendencies  away   from  the   pure  gospel    as 
preached  by  Ciirist  and  the  apostles,  as  already  indicated, 
were  towards  Judaism  on  one  side,  and  on  the 
Heresies.  Other,  towards  the  admixture  in  the  Christian 

system  of  pagan  elements.  In  the  sub-apos- 
tolic age  the  first  of  these  developed  into  the  sects  of  the 
Nazarenes,  the  Ebionites  and  the  Elkesaites. 

The  Nazarenes  v/ere  a  small  body  dwelling  in  Pellaand 
neighborhood.  They  held  to  the  Mosaic  law  and  did 
not  refuse  to  fellowship  with  Gentile  Chris- 
EbfonUeretc  tians.  The  Ebionites  were  much  more  numer- 
ous and  widespread.  Their  name  is  derived 
either  from  the  founder  of  the  sect,  of  whom,  however, 
nothing  further  is  known  ;  or  more  probably  from  the 
word  "  ebioH  "  meaning  poor,  humble,  oppressed.  They 
traced  their  pedigree  (if  the  latter  derivation  of  the  name 
be  correct)  to  the  original  disciples,  who  gave  up  all  into 
the  common  treasury  of  the  Church  and  made  themselves 
poor.  They  were  zealous  for  the  law,  refused  to  fellow- 
ship with  Gentile  Christians,  and  denied  the  divinity  of 
Jesus  Christ.  The  Elkesaites  derived  their  name  from 
a  book  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  In  addition 
to  the  Judaic  features  of  Ebionism  their  creed  was  charac- 
terized by  ascetic  elements,  which  they  probably  borrowed 
from  the  Essenes. 


THE  SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE. 


39 


The  Ebionites,  especially  those  who  affiliated  with  the 
Essenes,  were  very  eager  to  disseminate  their  views  as 
widely  as  possible.  To  this  end  they  resorted 
Lit^at"uJe*  to  literary  labors  whose  results  are  partly  pre- 
served in  the  so-called  Clementine  literature, 
consisting  of  certain  Homilies  and  Recognitions  falsely 
ascribed  to  Clement  of  Rome.  These  writings  emanate 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century,  and  are  in- 
tended to  exalt  the  views  of  the  Judaistic  Christians  by 
putting  them  into  the  mouth  of  the  apostle  Peter,  and  to 
cast  suspicion  on  the  apostle  Paul  by  representing  him 
under  the  repugnant  figure  of  Simon  Magus. 

The  anti-judaistic  tendency  in  Christianity  developed 
into  the  large  and  complicated  system  of  heresies  known 
as  Gnosticism.  The  name  is  derived  from 
genTraL^"""  gnosis  {yywrTc?),  knowledge,  and  indicates  in 
general  the  basis  of  the  whole  system  of 
Gnosticism.  It  was  the  effort  after  and  the  pretence  of 
a  deeper  inner  knowledge  of  the  mystery  of  existence,  not 
possessed  by  the  common  people.  This  alleged  knowl- 
edge was  nothing  but  the  expansion  of  heathen  ideas  of 
the  world.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  trace  these  ideas 
to  their  respective  sources.  There  were  elements  in  them 
contributed  by  Zoroastrianism,  by  Alexandrian  Platonism, 
and  by  the  Hebrew  Qabbala,  But  they  are  so  trans- 
formed that  they  can  scarcely  be  recognized.  Gnosticism 
is  therefore  best  considered  as  a  system  of  Christian- 
pagan  thought.  As  such  its  fundamental  and  common 
features  are:  (i)  The  dualistic  opposition  of  the 
principles  of  good  and  evil.  Evil  is  coeternal  with 
good.  The  latter  is  spirit,  the  former  is  matter.  (2) 
Emanations.  Sometimes  these  are  conceived  as  pro- 
ceeding from  the  two  primitive  and  original  centers 
(good  and  evil),  and  sometimes  from  the  good  as  the  more 
active  of  the  two.  These  emanations  are  called  yEons 
individually.  When  they  are  looked  at  as  a  whole  they 
constitute  the  Pleroma.  (3)  The  Uemiurgus.  This  is  the 
lowest  of  the  seons  emanating  from  the  good  and  stand- 
ing on  the  boundary  line  between  the  worlds  of  spirit  and 
of  matter.     He  fashions  out  of  the  elements  nearest  him 


40  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  actual  universe.  (4)  Sin,  though  not  distinctly  de- 
fined or  held,  is  implied  as  inhering  in  the  present  sys- 
tem of  created  things,  from  the  very  nature  of  its  origin, 
viz.,  the  mixture  of  elements  from  the  worlds  of  spirit  and 
matter.  The  Fall  is  simply  the  incorporation  of  material 
substance  in  the  universe.  (5)  Redemption  is  the  libera- 
tion of  the  spiritual  elements  from  the  association  of  the 
material.  It  is  effected  by  Christ,  M^ho  is  the  highest  and 
most  perfect  aeon.  As  matter  is  inherently  evil,  Christ 
could  not  have  had  a  real  material  body.  That  which  he 
appeared  to  have  was  not  a  real,  but  a  phantom  body. 
This  feature  of  Gnosticism  is  called  Docetism.  (6)  The 
ethics  of  Gnosticism  was  naturally  ascetic.  It  consisted 
in  denying  the  body  lawful  desires  on  the  ground  of  the 
evil  of  matter. 

These  general  features  appeared  in  different  combina- 
tions and  with  a  variety  of  details  in  a  large  number  of 
subordinate  systems.     These  may  be  grouped 
Special  Gnostic  conveniently  according  to  their  geographical 
Systems.  distribution.     In  fact  they  present  distinctive 

characteristics  in  different  regions,  (i)  The 
Samaritan  form  of  Gnosticism  goes  back  into  the  apostolic 
age  :  but  does  not  appear  fully  developed  into  a  separate 
type.  Its  representatives  Simon  Magus,  Dositheus  and 
Menander  have  been  named  as  teachers  of  error  in  that 
age.  (2)  The  Syrian  forms  are  characterized  by  the 
effort  to  associate  the  Gnostic  system  with  some  Biblical 
character  or  event.  The  Ophites  reverenced  the  serpent 
as  the  benefactor  of  mankind  and  the  leader  into  true 
knowledge.  But  they  complicated  their  system  by  at- 
taching to  it  an  elaborate  cosmogony.  The  Cainites, 
Sethites  and  Peratae  connected  their  teachings  with  the 
Old  Testament.  Saturninus  mingled  astrological  ele- 
ments with  his  Gnosticism.  Corpocrates  taught  "  com- 
munistic antinomianism."  (3)  The  Hellenic  forms  of 
Gnosticism  were  fully  developed  in  Basilides  and  Valen- 
tinus.  The  former  of  these  accounts  for  the  origin  of  the 
world  by  a  principle  of  evolution  from  a  world-seed  and 
the  latter  introduces  into  the  evolution  the  idea  of  sex, 
attributing  sexual  character  to  a  series  of  aeons.     (4)  The 


THE  SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE. 


41 


last  form  of  Gnosticism  to  be  mentioned  here  we  may  call 
tlie  Roman  because  its  originator  Marcion,  altliougli  a 
native  of  Sinope  in  Asia,  came  to  Rome  and  labored 
there.  Marcion's  system  is  perhaps  the  least  speculative 
of  the  Gnostic  theories.  Its  central  principle  is  that  there 
is  an  antagonism  between  the  Old  Testament,  and  Chris- 
tianity. The  God  of  the  Old  Testament  of  creation  and 
the  law  is  the  evil  principle.  He  is  cruel,  jealous  and 
destructive.  Above  this  God  of  the  Jews  there  is  a  good 
God  who  is  revealed  in  his  Son  Christ.  Christ  assumed 
an  apparent  body  and  only  in  appearance  suffered  the 
things  recorded  in  the  gospel.  To  avoid  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testament,  Marcion  con- 
structed a  canon  for  himself  consisting  of  those  New 
Testament  writings  only  which  laid  the  least  possible  em- 
phasis on  Old  Testament  teaching,  viz.,  the  epistles  of 
Paul  with  the  exception  of  those  to  Timothy  and  Titus, 
and  the  Gospel  of  Luke  modified  by  the  excision  of  those 
passages  which  might  be  interpreted  as  accepting  the  Old 
Testament. 

Distinctly  opposed  to  Marcion  and  yet  inclining  towards 
Gnosticism    was    Bardesanes,  who  flourished    at  Edessa 

about  the  end  of  the  second  and  the  begin- 
Bardesanes.       ning  of  the  third  centuries.     The  Gnosticism 

of  Bardesanes  is,  however,  of  such  a  vague 
nondescript  character  that  it  is  not  to  be  classified  with 
any  other ;  nor  did  it  prevent  his  exerting  a  strong  influ- 
ence over  the  Church.  His  hymns  certainly  found  great 
favor  in  the  early  Church,  and  his  missionary  preaching 
in  Armenia  is  recognized  as  distinctly  Christian. 

When  Christian  churches   became   numerous   through- 
out the  empire  the   question   of  the  outward  relations  of 

these  churches  began  to  receive  some  atten- 
Cathoiic  tion.     Each  church  as  far  as  its  own  internal 

Church.  .         .  .... 

organization  wis  concerned  remained  in  the 
same  condition  as  during  the  preceding  period.  The  in- 
ner unity  of  different  churches  within  the  same  general 
region  ("whether  it  were  city,  or  city  and  adjoining  sub- 
urban districts)  was  recognized  in  the  commitment  of  the 
government  of  the  whole  region  to  the  presbytery.     One 


42 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


member  of  the  presbytery  was  singled  out  and  given  the 
oversight  or  presidency  of  the  whole  district  and  probably 
the  name  bishop  was  applied  to  such  a  one  in  a  pre-emi- 
nent sense.  Naturally  such  a  bishop  was  in  each  case 
the  chief  presbyter  or  pastor  of  the  most  important  church 
in  the  region,  and  when  this  was  a  city  he  received  the 
name  of  metropolitan  (bishop).  This  system  necessitated 
the  holding  of  meetings  of  presbytery  at  stated  times  and 
led  to  the  holding  also  of  synods  or  councils  after  the 
pattern  of  the  council  at  Jerusalem  (A.  D.  50).  But  no  ac- 
counts of  any  synod  during  the  sub-apostolic  age  are  ex- 
tant. But  with  the  affiliation  of  churches  with  one  another 
and  the  growth  of  the  sense  of  inner  unity  arose  at  the 
end  of  this  age  the  idea  of  one  outward  universal  or  Cath- 
olic Church.  This  idea  was  no  doubt  promoted  by  the 
fact  that  the  Gnostics  and  Judaizers  were  seen  to  have 
departed  from  a  norm  existing  in  the  consciousness  of  the 
mass  of  Christians,  and  were  treated  as  heretics.  Thus 
Catholicism  became  sharply  distinguished  from  heresy. 

From  the  representations  of  Justin  Martyr  {Apol.  A.  D. 
85-86),  Pliny  {Epist.  ii.  to  Trajan)  and  the  Z>///(7rA(?  (Teach- 
ing of  the  Twelve)  we  gather  that  the  worship 
Worship.  of  tliis  period  was  not  different  in  an  essential 

respect  from  that  of  the  apostolic  age.  Chris- 
tians met  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  "  sang  a  hymn  to 
Christ  as  to  a  god  "  (Pliny)  and  offered  prayers  ;  the  pre- 
siding jDresbyter  exhorted  the  congregation,  perhaps  read- 
ing a  written  homily  after  the  pattern  of  II.  Clement; 
they  celebrated  the  eucharist  in  connection  with  the 
social  meal  known  as  the  "agape"  and  the  wealthy 
among  them  contributed  money,  which  was  applied  to 
the  needs  of  widows  and  orphans.  Baptism  was  admin- 
istered to  those  who  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  church, 
in  the  same  manner  as  before. 

At  what  time  precisely  the  extraordinary  spiritual  gifts 
of  miracle  working  and  prophecy  exercised  by  the  aposto- 
lic Church  ceased  it  is  not  possible   to  deter- 
Montanism.       mine.     It  is  certain,  however,  that  soon  after 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  there  arose 
a  party  which  made  the  possession  of  such  gifts  of  the 


THE  SUB-APOSTOLIC  AGE. 


43 


Spirit  the  test  of  the  true  Church  of  Christ,  and  their  ab- 
sence as  a  deplorable  sign  of  falhng  away  on  the  part  of 
the  CathoHc  Church.  The  leader  of  this  party  was  a  certain 
Montanus  of  Pepuza  in  Phrygia.  He  Nourished  in  about 
A.  D.  170  and  taught  that  the  promise  of  the  Paraclete 
was  to  be  taken  as  meaning  that  the  gift  of  prophecy  was 
to  be  perpetual  in  the  Church.  He  claimed  accordingly 
that  he  was  himself  an  authoritative  prophet  and  preached 
a  purer  morality  than  was  being  practiced  by  Christians 
in  general.  He  gained  many  adherents,  among  them  two 
women — Maximilla  and  Priscilla — who  also  claimed  pro- 
phetic authority.  A  sect  was  thus  formed  character- 
ized by  great  religious  fervor  and  ascetic  morality.  The 
most  eminent  of  the  Montanists  was  the  Latin  Father 
TertuUian  who  defended  and  enforced  their  peculiar 
tenets. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  ANTE-NICENE  CHURCH. 

(A.  D.  170-325.) 

This  is  the  period  of  the  Church's  struggle  with  the 
combined  forces    of  the  pagan   state,    pagan   philosophy 

and  culture  and  the  inherent  opposition  of  the 
Growth.  sinful  human  heart  to  the  call  unto  repentance 

and  a  holy  life.  Nevertheless  at  the  very 
opening  of  it  great  progress  is  noticeable  in  the 
spread  of  the  gospel  in  every  direction.  Christian 
churches  were  planted  in  Armenia  before  the  end  of 
the  second  century.  At  the  same  time  approximately, 
the  gospel  was  carried  into  Arabia  by  Pantaenus  of 
Alexandria  ;  somewhat  later  Bostra  appears  as  the  seat 
of  a  bishop.  In  Persia  Christianity  exists  not  simply 
in  traces  or  individual  churches,  but  broadly  spread  in 
numbers  of  communities  as  early  as  the  time  when  the  Sas- 
sanid  dynasty  supplanted  the  Parthian  (A.  D.  227).  In 
Africa  a  new  center  is  formed  (besides  that  in  Alexandria) 
at  Carthage.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  Latin  language 
appears  to  be  used  in  the  Christian  Church.  Here  too 
Agrippinus,  bishop  of  Carthage,  holds  one  of  the  earliest 
known  provincial  synods  consisting  of  the  bishops  of 
Churches  in  Numidia(A.  D.  200-220).  Crossing  over  to 
Fvurope,  we  find  Spain  overspread  with  Christian  churches 
and  at  a  council  at  Elvira,  towards  the  end  of  the  period 
mustering  together  nineteen  bishops  (A.  D.  306).  In  Gaul 
to  the  older  churches  of  Lyons  and  Vienne,  there  are  added 
a  large  number  of  others,  especially  those  at  Paris,  Rheims, 
Rouen,  Bordeaux,  Orange  and  Toulouse  ;  and  in  fact,  the 
Christian  Church  in  Gaulj  like  that  in  Spain,  assumes  large 
44 


THE  ANTE-NICENE  CHURCH.  ^r 

enough  proportions  during  the  latter  part  of  the  age  to 
hold  one  of  the  most  memorable  provincial  councils,  that 
at  Aries  (A.  D.  314).  In  Britain,  though  the  extent  of  the 
progress  of  Christianity  is  not  known,  its  having  found  a 
foothold  cannot  be  doubted.  The  British  Church  sent 
its  representatives  to  the  council  at  Aries  and  later  to  that 
of  Nicasa.  The  German  cities  of  Metz,  Treves  and 
Cologne  had  Christian  Churches  very  early.  As  early  as 
A.  D.  302  Afra  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Augsburg,  showing  that  there  were  at  that  date  Christians  in 
that  town.  The  missionaries  of  the  gospel  seem  to  have 
generally  followed  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  especially  the 
Rhine  and  Danube  and  planted  the  banner  of  the  cross 
in  the  provinces  adjoining  these  rivers.  Thus  at  the  end 
of  the  period  we  find  that  Christianity  had  penetrated  to 
the  remotest  parts  of  the  empire  and  in  some  cases  had 
passed  beyond  its  boundaries. 

The  importance  and  dignity  which  Christianity  assumed 
on  account  of  its  diffusion  and  the  appearance  within  it 
of  able  men  who  undertook  to  defend  it,  led  the  repre- 
sentatives of  pagan  philosophy  and  culture  to 
P^Tn  PW-  attack  it  with  vigor.  Fronto,  an  orator  of  the 
losophers.  days  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  is  said  to  have  com- 
posed an  oration  in  defense  on  legal  grounds 
of  that  emperor's  persecution  of  Christians.  Celsus  (A.  D. 
170),  a  man  of  wide  learning,  according  to  the  standards  of 
the  day,  and  acquainted  with  the  teachings  of  Christianity 
as  well  as  Judaism,  wrote  The  True  JVon/  as  a  refutation 
of  the  Christian  system.  In  it  he  sums  up  all  the  objec- 
tions, historical  and  philosophical,  that  can  be  brought 
up  against  the  faith  of  the  Church,  Later  philosophical 
attacks  have  done  no  more  than  restate  the  objections  of 
Celsus.  He  holds  the  Gospel  history  incredible,  assails 
the  doctrines  of  the  Atonement,  of  the  Incarnation,  and  of 
a  special  revelation,  and  exalts  philosophy  and  a  ration- 
alized philosophical  heathenism  over  against  what  he 
believes  to  be  the  superstition  of  the  Christians.  Lucian 
(A.  D.  180)  approached  Christianity  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  universal  skeptic.  As  he  had  ridiculed  the 
pagan    mythology,    he    attempted    to    ridicule     Christian 


46  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

belief  also.  In  his  History  of  Peregrhms  Proteus  he  repre- 
sents the  Christians  as  the  easy  dupes  of  a  not  very  skillful 
schemer.  He  was  evidently  familiar  with  some  of  the 
distinctive  features  of  Christian  life  and  thought,  such 
as  the  belief  in  immortality,  courage  in  meeting  death  for 
the  faith,  and  brotherly  love. 

As  distinguished  from  these  negative  and  destructive 
attacks  paganism  produced  first  a  positive  rival  to  the 
person  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity,  and 
Apollonius  of  second  a  system  of  philosophical  religion  or 
religious  philosophy.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  work  of  Philostratus  entitled  Life  of  ApoUoniiis  of 
Tyana.  Apollonius  was  reputed  to  be  a  miracle-worker 
and  teacher  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the  first  century. 
Philostratus  wrote  his  life  during  the  first  quarter 
of  the  third  century  as  a  specimen  of  ideal  manhood 
and  supernatural  power  produced  by  Pythagoreanism. 
Hence  Christianity  is  not  Only  unnecessary,  but  is  excelled 
in  practical  religious  force. 

The  religious  philosophy  set  up  as  a  rival  to  Christianity 
was  Neo-Platonism.  This  system  was  founded  in  Alex- 
andria by  Ammonius  Saccas  (A.  D.  241)  and 
Neo Piatonism.  elaborated  by  Plotinus  (A.  D.  270),  but  taken 
up  and  offered,  as  a  substitute  for  Christianity 
by  Porphyry  (A.  D.  233-304).  It  assumed  the  existence 
of  a  divine  substance  pervading  all  things  and  animating 
all  objects  worshiped  in  the  various  national  religions. 
Christianity  as  not  fraternizing,  but  rather  denying  the 
reality  of  other  religions  is  not  a  participant  in  this  divine 
afflatus.  Besides  setting  up  Neo-Platonism  as  a  rival 
to  it  Porphyry  also  attacked  Christianity  posi- 
Porphyry.  tivcly.  He  alleged  that  the  Old  and  Ncw  Tes- 
taments were  mutually  contradictory.  He  ap- 
plied principles  of  criticism  to  the  Book  of  Daniel  and 
denied  that  that  book  contains  true  predictions,  but 
ascribed  its  origin  to  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
He  pointed  to  the  dispute  between  Paul  and  Peter,  and 
alleged  that  the  followers  of  Jesus  had  distorted  his  teach- 
ings and  deified  him,  though  he  was  himself  a  noble  and 
good  man,  and  had  performed  miracles  by  the  aid  of  the 


THE  ANTE-NICENE  CHURCH.  47. 

gods.  Porphyry  also  sets  up  Pythagoras  as  the  ideal 
of  the  man  filled  with  divinity.  Finally  with  far  less 
strength  and  originality,  Hierocles  directed  an  attack  on 
Christianity  in  a  work  entitled  Truth-Loinng  Discourse* 

The  political  attack  on  the  Church  during  this  age  is  the 

continuation  and  outcome  of  the  persecuting  policy  of  the 

preceding.     The  persecution  which  raged  while 

Persecutions.     Marcus  Aurelius   reigned   subsided  under  his 

Alexander  j  /-  >  i         /  »     t  -v        n  \ 

Severus.  SOU  and  successor  Commodus  (A.  D.  180-192). 

This  ruler,  although  personally  one  of  the  least 
attractive  of  the  Roman  emperors  was  influenced  in  favor 
of  Christianity  by  his  mistress.  The  policy  of  leniency 
continued  during  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  (A.  D. 
193-2 11),  Caracalla  (A.  D.  21 1-2 18),  Heliogabalus  (A.  D. 
219-222)  and  Alexander  Severus  (A.  D.  222-225).  A  sort 
of  Oriental  or  African  dynasty  was  constituted  by  these  em- 
perors, none  of  whom  was  a  strenuous  champion  of  the  Ital- 
ian state  religious  ideas.  Septimius,  however,  restricted 
Christianity  by  forbidding  its  extension.  And  in  the  pro- 
vinces the  laws  and  edicts  against  the  Christians  con- 
tinued to  be  enforced.  Thus  in  Alexandria  Leonidas  and 
Potamicena,  the  father  and  mother  of  Origen  perished 
for  their  faith,  and  in  Carthage,  Perpetua  and  Felicitas 
were  wrapped  in  a  net  and  thrown  to  a  mad  cow. 
Alexander  Severus  befriended  Christianity  in  a  more 
positive  manner.  Being  of  a  religious  caste  of  mind 
and  seeking  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  religious  nature, 
he  constructed  a  pantheon  of  his  own,  in  which  he  gave 
places  among  others  to  Orpheus,  Abraham,  Apollonius  of 
Tyana,  and  Christ.  He  even  seriously  thought  of  adopting 
Christ  among  the  gods  of  Rome  and  building  him  a  tem- 
ple. Meanwhile  the  laws  against  the  Christians  were  not 
repealed,  as  the  emperor  evidently  depended  on  his  own 
good  will  and  disposition  to  protect  the  Christians.  His 
successor,  however,  Maximin  the  Thracian  (A.  D.  235-238) 

who  also  put  him  to  death,  out  of  hatred  to 
Maximin.  him,  from   the  very  beginning  declared  against 

the  policy  of  his  predecessor.     Assuming  that 

*    Ao-fi)^  'Pi.hx).riOri^  OX  Aoyot  <PtXa?.rj0£i'i  7:f)(j<i  •j^pinztayoo';. 


48  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  most  aggressive  promoters  of  the  gospel  were  the  offi- 
cers of  the  churches,  he  directed  his  edict  against  them.  His 
reign,  however,  was  brief ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Gordian 
(A.  D.  238-244).  Under  this  emperor  and  the  one  who  fol- 
lowed him,  Philip  the  Arabian  (A.  D.  244-249),  the  Chris- 
tians were  allowed  to  go  unmolested.  Philip  is  even  said  to 
have  secretly  embraced  Christianity.  However  this  may 
have  been,  Christianity  was  by  no  means  as  yet  beyond  the 
danger  of  further  persecution.      On   the  contrary  Decius, 

who  followed  Philip  on  the  imperial  throne  (A. 
Decius.  D.  249-351),  instituted  the  severest  persecution 

endured  by  the  Church  up  to  his  time.  This 
persecution  was  characterized  first  of  all  by  its  universality. 
It  was  no  longer  any  locality  or  class  of  Christians  that  were 
attacked,  but  the  whole  Church.  Decius  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  Christianity  was  radically  opposed  to  the  gen- 
ius of  Roman  institutions  and  that  the  only  way  to  save 
the  Roman  empire  was  to  suppress  Christianity.  He  is- 
sued his  edict  in  A.  D.  250.  According  to  its  terms,  which 
the  prefects  were  required  to  execute,  the  Christians  were 
to  be  summoned  back  to  the  state  religion.  Those  that  re- 
fused were  to  be  threatened,  and  if  they  persisted,  to  be  act- 
ually visited  with  confiscation  of  goods,  torture  and  death. 
Many  of  the  Christians,  accustomed  to  the  immunity 
enjoyed  under  the  immediately  preceding  emperors,  yielded 
under  the  application  of  the  first  penalties.  These  were 
called  lapsi  (fallen)  ;  if  they  signified  their  return  to 
heathenism  by  sacrificing  to  the  pagan  gods  they  were 
specially  designated  sacrijicati ;  if  by  strewing  incense  they 
were  called  thui-ificati ;  if  by  signing  a  certificate  of  their 
having  done  so,  they  were  named  lihcllatici  and  adafaci- 
entes.  On  the  other  hand  those  who  persisted  in  their 
adherence  to  the  faith  were  called  confessores,  if  they  en- 
dured torture  but  survived,  and  martyres  if  they  suffered 
unto  death.  Thus  under  Decius,  Gallus  (A.  D.  251-253) 
and  Valerian  (A.  D.  253-259)  the  Church  was  subjected  to 
the  purifying  influence  of  tribulation.  Many  eminent  men, 
including  in  the  number  bishops  Fabian  and  Cornelius  of 
Rome,  Babylas  of  Antioch  and  Alexander  of  Jerusalem 
suffered    martyrdom,  while  others   like  Origen,  Dionysius 


THE  ANTE-NICENE  CHURCH.  4^ 

of   Alexandria,    and    Cyprian,    were    subjected   to   other 
sufferings. 

The  persecution  was  arrested  abruptly  and  formally  by 
the  son  of  Valerian,  Gallienus  (A.  D.  260-268).  This  em- 
peror issued  an  edict  of  toleration  without, 
Gallienus.  howevcr,  recognizing  Christianity  as  a  legiti- 
mate religion,  as  is  often  alleged.  This  toler- 
ation was  continued  by  Claudius  II.  (A.  D.  268-270)  and 
Aurelian  (A.  D.  270-275),  and  through  the  nine  years  of 
practical  interregnum  (A.  D.  275-284)  preceding  the 
accession  of  Diocletian. 

Diocletian  (A.  D.  284-305)  was  a  clear-sighted  statesman, 
dominated  by  the  supreme  desire  to  bring  the  empire  out 
of  the  confusion  into  which  it  had  been 
Diocletian.  plunged  by  his  immediate  predecessors.  He 
organized  the  government  in  a  systematic  way 
by  associating  with  himself  Maximian  as  co-reigning 
Augustus  and  appointing  two  subordinate  rulers  entitled 
Caesar.  For  eighteen  years  the  natural  benevolence  and 
statesmanship  of  the  emperor  prevailed  over  many  urgent 
demands  for  the  suppression  of  Christianity,  In  A.  D. 
303  he  seems  to  have  been  persuaded  that  his  ambitions 
and  plans  for  the  empire  as  organized  by  himself  were  im- 
periled by  the  toleration  of  the  Christians.  Accordingly 
he  issued  an  edict  ordering  the  destruction  of  Christian 
church  buildings,  followed  by  another  imprisoning  all 
bishops  and  presbyters,  and  by  a  third  subjecting  them  to 
torture.  These  edicts  were  the  signal  for  the  outburst  of 
popular  fury  on  the  part  of  the  pagans.  The  atrocities 
that  were  perpetrated  were  numerous.  A  fourth  edict  in 
A.  D.  304  brought  matters  to  a  crisis  by  offering  Chris- 
tians the  simple  alternative  of  apostasy  or  death.  The 
persecution  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  systematic  and 
determined  effort  to  exterminate  Christianity.  A  few 
Christians  broke  down  under  the  bloody  violence  which 
ensued  and  were  designated /r^/^/Z/f/vi"  from  giving  up  their 
sacred  books  ;  but  the  majority  endured  intense  suffer- 
ings and  vast  numbers  met  horrible  death.  In  A.  D.  305 
Diocletian  abdicated  with  Maximian,  his  associate.  They 
were  succeeded  by  Severus  and  Maximin  Daza.  The  per- 
4 


go  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

secution  was  continued,  but  its  futility  became  apparent 
and  in  A.  D.  311  an  edict  of  toleration  was  issued,  re- 
newed in  A.  D.  313  at  Milan  by  Constantine  and  Licinius, 
who  meanwhile  after  civil  dissension  and  wars  had  come 
to  the  throne  jointly. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ANTE-NICENE   CHRISTIAN   THOUGHT. 

The  different  branches  of  the  Christian  Church  located 
in  different  geographical    parts   naturally   developed   dif- 
ferent types    of  literary    productions.     There 
Christian  ^rc  to   be  distinguished  of  these  in  the  Ante- 

Wnters.  .  o 

Nicene  age  : 

I.  The  Asiatic- Western.  The  churches  in  Gaul  were 
offshoots  from  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  The  greatest 
of  the  writers  belonging  to  this  region,  Irenasus 
ireuaus.  ^^_  Y)   202)  was  a  native  of  Asia   Minor  and 

was  fond  of  telling  how  through  his  teacher  Polycarp  he 
had  been  brought  into  contact  with  the  apostolic  traditions. 
He  was  interested  in  Gnosticism,  seeing  in  it  a  grievous 
departure  from  the  simplicity  of  the  faith  delivered  by  the 
apostles,  and  wrote  a  treatise  directed  against  it  under  the 
title  Refutatio7i  and  Overthrow  of  Knowledge  (gnosis) 
falsely  so  called. 

Irenseus  no  doubt  stimulated  his  pupil  Hippolytus 
(fi.  A.  D.  200-235)  to  continue  in  a  literary  way  the  battle 
against  Gnosticism.  Hippolytus,  however, 
Hippolytus.  Yiwed  in  Rome.  He  wrote  several  works  ;  the 
most  important  is  that  entitled  Against  all  Heresies, 
dealing  not  only  with  the  errors  of  Gnosticism,  but  with 
other  forms  of  departure  from  the  gospel  as  well.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  he  charges  these  heresies  with  seeking 
their  support  not  in  Scripture,  but  in  astrology  and 
pagan  philosophy.      He  also  compiled  a  chronology. 

Another  writer  of  this  type,  also  a  resident  of  Rome,  was 
Gains,  who  opposed  Montanism.  Further  Hegesip])us, 
(A.  D.  180)  the  author  of  Monoirs  also  lived  in 
gesippus.  ^  Rome.  His  work  was  perhaps  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  historical  data  regarding  the  early 

51 


52  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

career  of  the  Church,  but  was  unfortunately  lost  in  the 
troublous  limes  of  the  persecution  of  the  Church, 

Of  purely  Asiatic  origin  and  residence  was  Julius 
Africanus  (fl.  A.  D.  232)  the  author  of  a  Chroiwgraphia  or 
chronological  arrangement  of  sacred  history. 
rarliiT  ^^"'  -^^  ^  letter  to  Origen  on  the  authorship  of  the 
Histoj-y  of  Susanna  he  shows  some  apti- 
tude for  critical  work.  Criticism  and  interpretation,  how- 
ever, were  first  cultivated  at  Antioch,  and  Dorotheus  (A.  D. 
290)  and  Lucian  (A.  D.  311)  are  the  earliest  who  gave 
themselves  to  this  branch  of  labor. 

II.  The  Latin-African.  The  first  Christian  to  use  the 
Latin  language  in  his  writings  was  Tertullian  (A.  D.  160- 
220).  He  was  born  at  Carthage,  his  father  being 
Tertullian.  a  Roman  ccnturion.  He  was  a  man  evidently 
of  enthusiastic  and  rugged  temperament,  who 
had  lived  somewhat  irregularly  in  early  youth,  had  quali- 
fied himself  for  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  and  was  converted  to 
Christianity  about  the  age  of  forty.  He  threw  himself 
into  the  life  and  thought  of  Christianity  with  characteris- 
tic vehemence  and  became  an  uncompromising  enemy  of 
worldly  wisdom.  In  his  later  life  he  joined  the  Monta- 
nists  and  manifested  in  the  exposition  and  defence  of  his 
new  position  the  same  vigor  that  characterized  him  as  a 
member  of  the  catholic  body.  He  wrote  a  large  number 
of  works  which  may  be  classified  in  general  into  (a)  Apolo- 
getical  treatises  directed  against  the  opponents  of  Christi- 
anity, both  Jews  and  Pagans.  Of  these  the  Advcrsos  Gentes 
and  the  Adi'ersos  Jndaos  are  the  most  important,  (b)  Con- 
troversial treatises  directed  against  heretics.  These  in- 
cluded such  works  as  De  Baptismo,  Adv.  Valentinanos,  Adv. 
Marcionan  and  Adv.  Praxeam.  (c)  Practical  treatises, 
being  exhortations  to  asceticism.  Of  these  the  De  Poeni- 
tentia,  De  Baptistno,  Ad  Marty  res,  De  Spectaculis,  Dc  Cultic 
Feminarmn,  are  the  most  noteworthy  among  many  others. 
After  his  conversion  to  Montanism,  Tertullian  became 
even  more  devoted  to  asceticism  and  wrote  more  fer- 
vently for  it. 

Tertullian   was  closely  followed  by  Cyprian  (Thascius 
Caecilianus  Cyprianus).    (A.  D.  195-258.)    Cyprian  was  the 


ANTE-NICENE  CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT. 


S3 


scion  of  a  wealthy  family  in  Carthage  and  appears  first 
as  a   teacher    of   rhetoric,    and  after  his  con- 
Cyprian.  version  in  A.  D.  245,  as  a  presbyter.     Shortly 

after  this  he  reluctantly  accepted  the  office 
of  bishop  being  urged  thereto  by  the  people.  When  the 
persecution  under  Decius  broke  out  he  was  persuaded  to 
conceal  himself  for  a  time,  but  returned  to  find  his  path 
beset  by  difficulties  arising  from  questions  as  to  the 
treatment  of  the  /a/>si  and  the  authority  of  the  bishop  in 
the  Church.  When  Valerian  revived  the  Decian  perse- 
cution Cyprian  was  apprehended  and  beheaded  in  A.  D. 
258.  He  was  not  as  original  nor  as  vigorous  a  writer  as 
Tertullian  ;  but  more  fluent  and  graceful.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished less  as  a  theological  thinker  than  as  an  ecclesi- 
astic. Of  his  numerous  writings  the  Dc  Unitatc  Ecdesice 
and  De  Lapsis  deserve  mention. 

Of  the  other  ecclesiastical  writers  who  used  Latin,  the 
best  known  are  :  Minucius  Felix  who  composed  an  apol- 
ogy entitled  Ocfavius,  Commodian,  an  African,  Victorinus 
of  Petavium,  Arnobius  and  Lactantius. 

III.  The  Alexandrian  School.  Alexandria  maintained 
for  many  centuries  its  primacy  as  the  seat  of  Greek  learn- 
ing. It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  when  the 
Alexandrian  Churcli  was  ready  to  establish  a  school  for 
the  education  of  its  clergy  it  should  choose  this 
city  as  the  place  for  it.  This  school  was  primarily  in- 
tended for  the  instruction  of  such  pagan  converts  to 
Christianity  as  had  some  philosophical  education  and  de- 
sired to  be  more  fully  informed  regarding  the  mj'steries 
of  the  faith.  Its  scope  was,  however,  either  enlarged  or 
changed  so  as  to  make  it  the  instrument  for  the  training 
of  Christian  teachers. 

The  first  of  the  teachers  in  this  school  was  Pantfenus,  a 
converted  Stoic  philosopher  (A.  D.  190).  He  made  use  of 
Greek  scientific  and  philosophical  thought  in 
Panta;nus.  formulating  the  truths  of  the  Christian  faith. 
He  was  followed  by  Clement  (Titus  Flavins 
Clemens,  A.  D.  220).  Clement  was  also  a  convert  from 
paganism.  During  the  persecution  under  Septimius  Sev- 
erus  (A.  D.  202)  he  fled  to  escape  the  rage  of  the  heathens, 


54  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

but  persisted  in  his  literary  and  other  labors  until  his 
death.  His  standpoint  is  that  of  the  mediator  between 
Christian  doctrine  and  pagan  philosophy.  Many  of  his 
positions  are  the  result  of  the  putting  of  Platonism  as  a 
foundation  under  Christian  teaching.  His  known  works 
were  the  Addixss  to  the  Greeks,  the  Pctdagogite,  the  Stro- 
7nata  (Patchwork)  and  the  lost  Hypotyposes. 

The  greatest   of  the  Alexandrian  teachers,  in    fact  the 
greatest   of  the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  was  Origen  (Adaman- 
tius  Origenes,   A.  D.    185-254).       Origen  was 
„  .  born  of  Christian  parents  and  given  all  the  ad- 

vantages that  a  Christian  could  afford.  His 
father  and  mother  died  the  martyr's  death  in 
A.  D.  202.  But  Origen,  unterrified  by  their  fate,  continued 
in  the  profession  of  his  faith  and  was  early  employed  as  a 
teacher  in  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria.  He  be- 
ecame  a  pupil  of  Ammonius  Saccas  in  order  to  qualify 
himself  for  the  task  of  giving  philosophical  instruction. 
He  also  perpetrated  self-mutilation,  in  mistaken  obedience 
to  Matt.  xix.  12.  He  later  visited  Rome,  Arabia,  where 
he  engaged  in  missionary  labors,  Greece,  Antioch  and 
Palestine.  The  bishop  of  Alexandria,  jealous  of  his 
growing  fame,  summoned  him  to  that  city,  arraigned  him 
before  two  councils  and  excommunicated  him  on  the 
ground  of  heresy,  self-mutilation  and  contumacy.  Origen 
withdrew  to  Caesarea  and  under  the  protection  of  the  em- 
peror Philip  opened  a  theological  school  there.  Here 
during  the  Decian  persecution  he  was  seized,  tortured,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  injuries  received  in  this  way  died 
in  A.  D.  254. 

He  was  an  industrious  worker  and  the  results  of  his 
literary  activity  are  voluminous.  They  consist  in  contri- 
butions to  all  the  then  cultivated  branches  of 
Origen's  Works. theological  learning.  They  may  be  grouped 
roughly  as  :  (a)  Critical.  Here  belongs  the 
monumental  work  to  which  the  author  devoted  twent}'-- 
seven  years  of  research,  entitled  Hexapla.  This  was 
a  critical  edition  of  the  current  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures,  the  Septuagint.  It  exhibited,  in  six 
parallel    columns   for    the    purpose    of    comparison,    the 


ANTE-NICENE  CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT. 


55 


Hebrew  text,  a  transliteration  of  tliis  in  Greek  letters,  the 
text  of  the  LXX,  the  version  of  Aquila,  that  of  Symma- 
chus  and  that  of  Theodotion.  By  a  system  of  signs  the 
variations  of  these  versions  were  pointed  out  to  the  user. 
The  enormous  bulk  of  this  work  prevented  its  multiplica- 
tion in  man)'  copies,  and  it  was  consequently  lost  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  fragments.  (b)  Exegetical.  The 
works  of  this  group  were  either  short  notes  (Scholia),  ex- 
pository discourses  (Homilies),  or  commentaries  on  whole 
books.  His  method  of  interpretation  has  been  called  alle- 
gorical. In  fact  its  fundamental  assumption  was  that 
there  are  to  be  distinguished  in  Scripture  three  senses  co- 
existing :  the  literal,  the  moral,  and  the  mystical.  The 
last  of  these  Origen  sought  for  more  eagerly  than  the 
others  ;  hence  his  reputation  for  allegorism.  (c)  Theolog- 
ical. In  this  group  is  to  be  placed  another  great  work 
entitled  First  P?-indples  {De  Principiis,  -zp\  fj.f)yw'y)  build- 
ing up  a  system  of  Christian  truth  out  of  the  Biblical 
materials  through  the  use  of  Greek  philosophy.  Here 
also  belongs  the  lost  treatise  on  the  Resurrection,  (d) 
Apologetical.  The  treatise  Against  Celsus  is  the  reply  of 
Origen  to  the  attacks  of  the  ablest  representative  of  pagan- 
ism on  Christianity,  (e)  Practical.  This  group  consists 
of  writings  intended  to  promote  personal  piety  and  con- 
secration. Such  are  the  discourse  on  Prayer  and  the 
ExJwrtation  to  Martyrdom. 

Origen    was  a  pioneer   in  the  field   of  theology.     His 
previous  training  led  him  to  see  the  vast  breadth  and  dif- 
fusion of  truth   and  to  seek  for  it  not  by  way 
Origen'sThe-    of  cxclusion  but   by  comprehension.     It  was 
°°^^'  his  habit    in    controversy  with  heretics  to  try 

to  persuade  his  opponents  of  the  narrowness  and  frag- 
mentary nature  of  their  views  and  the  breadth  and 
completeness  of  the  catholic  view.  In  this  way  he 
prevailed  on  Beryl  of  Bostra  to  abandon  his  error. 
But  this  characteristic  led  him  to  introduce  into  his  sys- 
tem a  number  of  elements  which  were  disavowed  by  the 
Church  later  as  heresies.  Such  w^ere  the  teachings  of  the 
eternity  of  all  souls,  of  transmigration,  of  spiritual  bodies, 
of  the  efficacy  of  the  atonement  for  other  intelligent  but 


56  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

fallen  beings  besides  man,  of  the  subordination  of  the 
essence  of  the  Son  to  that  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  final 
restoration  of  all  fallen  beings. 

The  most  important  successor  of  Origen  in  the  School 
of  Alexandria  was  Dionysius  (the  Great,  A,  D.  265).  He 
was  evidently  a  man  of  tact  as  well  as  of  zeal. 
Dionysius.  He  opposed  the  Chiliasts  of  his  day  and  vici- 
nage, but  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  occasion 
a  violent  controversy  and  lead  to  a  schism.  His  writ- 
ings are  much  praised  by  the  ancients,  but  only  frag- 
ments of  them  are  extant. 

Among  the  disciples  of  Origen  in  Ceesarea  Gregory  Thau- 

maturgus  (the  Wonder-worker,  A.  D.  270)  was  one  of  the 

most  eminent  as  well  as  devoted  to  his  teacher. 

Gregory  Thau-    He  composed   a   Confession  of  Faith   (lAOtaiq 

maturgus.  ,  \         j  r,  •  A   ■  k  ^ 

-i(7Tzio<i)  and  a  Panegyric  on  Ortgcn.  Another 
adherent  of  Origen's  in  Ctesarea  was  Pamphilus,  bishop  of 
Ccesarea,  who  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament. 

Origen  made  not  only  disciples  but  also  opponents. 
The  most  important  of  these  was  Methodius,  bishop  of 
Olympus  (A.  D.  311).  Although  himself  a  philosophical 
theologian,  Methodius  assailed  some  of  Ori- 
Metiiodius.  gen's  Special  views,  such  as  the  preexistence 
of  the  soul  and  its  fall  before  entrance  into 
this  life.  He  wrote  on  the  Reswrrection  and  in  praise  of 
abstinence  from  marriage. 

It  was  through  the  labors  of  such  men  that  the  Church 
during  this  age  gradually  came  to  the  consciousness  of 
its  possession  of  a  rule  of  faith  and  a  system 
Ca"nTo"f?h°/''''  of  doctrine.  As  appeal  was  made  to  the 
New  Testament,  apostolic  writings  to  decide  disputes  as  to  the 
truth  of  beliefs  held  and  propounded,  the  fact  that  their 
writers  had  the  special  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
brought  to  the  surface.  This  belief  in  the  inspiration  of 
the  New  Testament  and  the  coordination  of  its  books  with 
the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  was  not  the  consequence 
or  outgrowth  of  the  theological  thinking  of  this  age,  but 
an  underlying  factor  simply  made  known  now.  Unless 
this  belief  were  thus  underlying  it  would  be  hard  to  ex- 
plain the  appeal  to  these  books  as  final  authority  in  de- 


ANTE-NICENE  CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT  cy 

bate.  But  if  these  writings  are  binding  in  a  manner 
different  from  other  writings  they  must  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  spurious  and  counterfeit  productions. 
Thus  the  collection  and  separation  of  the  New  Testament 
books  takes  place  and  the  canon  emerges. 

The  exigencies  of  church  life  further  led  to  the  use  of  a 
short  summary  of  belief  contained  in  a  few  lucid  sen- 
tences. This  was  probably  the  nucleus  of  the 
Fahh^"'^°^  Apostles'  Creed  and  was  used  first  in  its 
briefest  and  simplest  form  in  the  baptism  of 
converts.  Hence  the  terms  '*  Church  Rule,"  "  Rule  of 
Truth  "  and  "  Rule  of  Faith  "  applied  to  it.  The  early 
formation  of  this  Rule  is  proved  by  its  diffusion  through- 
out the  whole  Church.  Irenseus  in  Gaul,  Tertullian  in 
North  Africa  and  Origen  in  Alexandria,  all  give  in  sub- 
stance, at  least,  the  same  contents  for  this  earliest  creed. 
One  of  the  first  questions  suggested  by  the  studies  of 
of  the  Christians  at  this  time  was  as  to  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the  God- 
S''"'"'^'  head.  The  Catholic  Church  emphasized  the 
unity  of  God  as  against  pagan  polytheism,  but 
insisted,  both  in  the  Rule  of  Faith  and  in  practice  (in 
worship),  on  the  distinction  of  the  Father,  the  Logos,  and 
the  Holy  Spirit.  As  against  this  position  arose  various 
departures.  First  the  Alogi  denied  and  rejected  the 
whole  doctrine  of  the  Logos  and  with  it  its  Biblical  sources, 
the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the  Book  of  Revelation.  They  did 
not,  however,  at  any  time  find  any  considerable  number 
of  adherents.  The  tendency  then  arose  to  dissolve  the 
mystery  which  necessarily  accompanies  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity. 

The  different  attempts  to  accomplish  this  end  have  been 
summed  up  under  one  single  designation  applied  to  them 
at  the  time,  that  of  Monarchianism.  Mon- 
Monarchianism.  archiauism  is  the  reduction  of  the  Trinity  into 
a  Unity.  It  is  the  assertion  that  there  is  but 
one  "  principle  in  the  Godhead."  It  attempts  to  elimi- 
nate the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  in  one  of  two  ways,  (i)  It 
either  denies  the  essential  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
ascribes    to   him  a  certain   divine  presence  or  power  as 


58  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

supernatural  endowment.  In  this  form  it  is  Dynamic 
Monarchianism.  Or  (2)  it  makes  Christ  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  mere  manifestations  of  God,  and  in  that  case  it  is 
Modal  Monarchianism. 

The  first  teacher  of  Dynamic  Monarchianism  was 
Theodotus,  a  tanner.  He  held  that  Jesus  was  the  most 
pious  and  most  righteous  of  men,  conceived 
?rchfanism.^^°"'accordingto  the  counsel  of  God  by  the  power 
Theodotus.  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  born  of  the  Virgin 
Mary ;  that  at  his  baptism  the  Holy  Spirit  descended 
on  him  and  endowed  him  with  the  power  of  performing 
miracles;  but  that  otherwise  he  was  not  the  Incarnate 
God,  nor  entitled  to  honor  and  worship  as  such.  Victor, 
bishop  of  Rome,  excommunicated  Theodotus.  Neverthe- 
less he  made  some  followers.  Artemon  seems  to  have 
held  similar  views  independently.  Another  Theodotus,  a 
money-changer,  is  classified  with  these  Monarchians  be- 
cause he  represented  Jesus  as  the  reincarnation  in  an  in- 
ferior form  of  Melchizedek.  His  followers  were  some- 
times called  Melchizedekians. 

The  most  distinguished  Dynamic  Monarchian  was  Paul 
of  Samosata.  (fl.  A.  D.  260-272).  He  was  bishop  of 
Antioch  and  is  represented  as  a  man  fond  of 
Paul  of  Samosata.  pomp  and  richcs  and  even  immoral.  He 
taught  that  the  Logos  was  not  a  distinct 
person.  That  Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere  man  on  whom  the 
impersonal  Logos  rested  and  in  whom  it  dwelt  through 
his  ministry.  Paul  was  deposed  by  a  council  at  Antioch 
in  A.  D.  269. 

The  earlier  form  of  Modal  Monarchianism  was  called 
Patripassianism,  because  those  who  held  it  admitted  that 
according  to  their  doctrine  God  the  Father,  the 
cSsiTi ? Pa""-"" ly  God,  suffered  on  the  cross  in  the  form 
passiaiiism.  of  jcsus  Christ.  Praxcas  (fl.  A.D.  175-189) 
was  the  first  to  teach  Patripassianism,  x'Yccording  to  him 
God  in  his  spiritual  existence  is  the  Father  and  in  the 
material  existence  the  Son.  Tertullian  appeared  as  the 
champion  of  the  catholic  view  against  Praxeas.  Noetus 
(fl.  A.  D.  200)  taught  the  Patripassian  view  at  Smyrna.  He 
summed  up  his  system   in  the  one  sentence  :  "  The  Son 


ANTE-NICENE  CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT. 


59 


of  God  is  his  own  Son  and  not  another's."  A  sect  of 
his  followers  was  organized  at  Rome  by  his  pupil  Epi- 
gonus.  Hippolytus  combated  this  sect,  and  bishop 
Zephyrinus,  without  pronouncing  himself  an  adherent  of 
their  views,  protected  and  defended  them.  The  attitude 
of  this  bishop  was  maintained  by  his  successor  Callistus 
also,  and  the  controversy  between  Hippolytus  and  these 
bishops  of  Rome  was  waged  with  bitterness  on  both  sides. 
The  most  pronounced  form  of  Modal  Monarchianism 
was  taught  by  the  Libyan  Sabellius  at  Rome.  According 
to  him  God  is  a  unity  (monad).  As  resting  in 
Sabellius.  himself  he  is  the  Silent   God  ;  as  coming  out 

of  himself  he  is  the  Speaking  God.  For  the 
purpose  of  creation  and  redemption  he  assumes  three 
forms.  These  are  not  essentially  different,  but  mere 
modes  or  manifestations.  God  thus  transforms  himself, 
adapting  himself  to  the  nature  of  what  he  is  to  do.  In 
the  Old  Testament  as  Creator  and  Lawgiver  he  is  the 
Father.  In  the  New  as  Redeemer  he  became  man  as  the 
Son.  He  descended  on  the  apostles  as  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Beryl  of  Bostra  is  also  mentioned  as  at  one  time  a  Mo- 
narchian,  but  nothing  is  known  of  his  special 
Beryl.  vlcws.     He  was  wou  ovcr  to  the  CathoUc  posi- 

tion by  the  reasoning  of  Origen. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  a  large  sec- 
tion of  the  Christian  Church  entertained  the  expectation 
of  the  immediate  coming  of  the  Lord  a  second 
chihasm.  time  to  reign  for  a   thousand  years  on   earth 

according  to  Rev.  xx.  2,  3.  This  belief  has 
been  called  Chiliasm.  It  was  worked  out  into  portrait- 
ures more  or  less  distinct  of  the  state  of  things  during 
this  millenium.  Whenever  the  practical  results  on  the 
Christian  life  of  such  views  of  the  Second  Advent  were 
seen  to  be  unwholesome,  eminent  leaders,  like  Caius, 
Origen  and  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  appeared  against 
them.  On  the  other  hand  many  cherished  the  hope  of 
Christ's  immediate  coming  with  delight  and  advantage  to 
their  souls.  Such  were  Irena^us,  Tertullian  and  others. 
The  question  did  not  call  forth  action  by  the  Church 
either  favoring  or  opposing  Chiliasm. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ECCLESIASTICAL   DEVELOPMENT. 

Several  important  changes,  all  in  the  way  of  multipli- 
cation and  diversification  of  parts  and  functions  take 
place  in  the  period  before  us  in  the  organization,  wor- 
ship and  life  of  the  Church. 

In  the  government  of  the  Church  the  distinction  begins 
to  be    drawn    sharply    between    clergy    and     laity.     The 

clergy  is  likened  to  the  Old  Testament  priest- 
Lat[^^"'*         hood  and  so  the  Christian  ministry  assumes  a 

sacerdotal  character.  Further  the  distinction 
between  the  title  of  bishop  and  that  of  presbyter  be- 
comes emphasized,  until  the  name  bishop  is  applied  ex- 
clusively to  that  one  of  the  presbyters  in  a  church  who 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  body  of  presbyters. 

This  differentiation  of  the  episcopate  along  with  the 
ascription  of  priestly  functions  to  the  ministry  reaches  its 

highest  point  for  this  age  in  the  ideas  of 
The  Bishops.     Cyprian.     According  to  this  father  the  bishop 

is  the  visible  head  of  the  community  and  the 
organ  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  By  him  uninterrupted  connec- 
tion is  maintained  with  the  Lord,  and  through  him  spirit- 
ual blessings  reach  the  flock.  He  is  the  successor  of 
the  apostles  and  the  vicar  of  Christ.  Without  submission 
to  him  there  can  be  no  true  membership  in  the  Church. 
The  exaltation  of  the  bishop  naturally  put  presbyters 
into  the  position  of  assistants  and  counselors,  who  also 

assumed  complete  control  and  exercised  all 
Detofns'^'^  ^"^  ^^^^  bishop's  functions  in  case  of   a  vacancy 

in  the  office.     The  deacons  were  also  attached 
to  the  bishop's   office,  but  in  a  more   indirect   and  sub- 
ordinate way,  preserving  the  specific  function  of  servants 
60 


ECCLESIASTICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  6i 

in  external  matters.  They  were,  however,  by  virtue  of 
their  association  with  the  bishop  classed  with  the  higher 
clergy  along  with  presbyters  and  commissioned  to  preach 
and  perform  other  religious  services. 

Distinct  from  the  higher  clergy  there  appeared  a  num- 
ber of  subordinate  officers  grouped  together  as  the  lower 

clergy.  These  were :  (a)  Readers,  charged 
Lower  Clergy,    wjth  the  duty  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the 

divine  service  ;  (/')  Exorcists,  employed  in 
healing  demoniacs,  or  casting  out  devils  by  the  offering 
up  of  prayers  for  them  ;  (<■)  Acolytes,  who  were  personal 
attendants  of  bishops  and  rendered  such  services  as 
might  be  required  of  them  ;  (d)  Doorkeepers,  who 
watched  at  the  doors  and  prevented  suspicious  characters 
from  entering  at  the  time  of  and  disturbing  service ;  (e) 
Sub-deacons,  who  were  appointed  in  localities  where  the 
labors  of  the  deacons  became  too  heavy  for  them  ;  {/) 
Deaconesses,  who  ministered  to  women  in  communities 
where  the  seclusion  of  the  female  sex  made  it  hard  for 
men  to  perform  services  for  them.  The  functions  of 
deaconesses  were,  however,  probably  assigned  to  and 
performed  by  a  new  class  called  "widows,"  who  bound 
themselves  not  to  marry,  and  engaged  also  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  female  inquirers  (catechumens). 

The   election    of    bishops  was   still   nominally    in   the 
hands  of  the  community  over  which  they  were  to  preside ; 

but  the  presbyters  assumed  a  deciding 
Cmi^secr"adon  of  voice  in  the  matter,  reducing  the  part  of 
Bishops.  the  people  to    a  mere  assent  to  the  choice 

made  by  them.  Bishops  were  chosen  generally  from 
the  ranks  of  presbyters,  but  occasionally  from  lower 
grades  of  clergy  and  even  directly  from  the  laity.  The 
clergy  below  the  rank  of  bishop  were  also  nominally  ap- 
pointed by  the  people,  but  the  voice  of  the  bishop  be- 
came in  such  appointments  practically  supreme.  When 
inducted  into  office  bishops  were  consecrated  by  other 
bishops  from  neighboring  churches.  Presbyters  and  dea- 
cons were  ordained  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  the 
bishop. 

The  support  of  the  clergy  came    from  the    offerings 


62  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  the  people,  which  as  the  ministry  assumed  the  char- 
acter of  priesthood  became  more  and  more 
MarriTe"^^^"^^  -^^^S"^^^'  They  Came  to  be  regarded  in  the 
light  of  tithes  according  to  the  provisions  of 
the  Mosaic  law.  Marriage  was  allowed  to  all  the  clergy. 
But  the  unmarried  were  honored  as  more  holy  and  conse- 
crated. The  Oriental  idea  of  the  inherent  impurity  of 
the  body  with  its  passions  and  appetites  found  acceptance, 
and  those  living  in  conjugal  relations  were  deemed  less 
worthy  to  officiate  in  sacred  places  and  on  sacred  occa- 
sions. 

The  idea  of  the   unity  of  the    Catholic  Church,  which 
was  seen  emerging  in  the  consciousness  of  Christendom 
at  the  end  of  the  preceding  age,  was  furthered 
Hierarchi-         during  the  Ante-Nicene   period  by  the  more 
ization.  compact  Organization  of  the  local  neighbor- 

hoods into  provincial  parishes  under  metro- 
politan bishops.  Correlated  with  this  movement  was  the 
subordination  of  such  bishops  as  had  charge  of  country 
districts  under  the  name  of  rural  bishops  (Chorepiscopi 
yii)pz-icsy.()-ui)  with  definitely  limited  powers  and  preroga- 
tives. These  provinces  again  were  grouped  in  larger  ter- 
ritorial divisions  according  to  the  political  divisions  of  the 
empire — the  dioceses. 

These    divisions     and     the    progress     in    organization 
marked  by  them  were  further  accentuated  by  diocesan 
and  provincial  synods.     Important  provincial 
Synods.  synods  began  to  be  held  about  the  end  of  the 

second  century,  first  in  Asia  Minor,  and  later 
in  North  Africa,  Gaul,  Spain  and  Rome.  At  these  the 
bishops  had  the  deciding  voice,  but  presbyters  and  deacons 
also  sat  and  took  part  in  the  deliberations.  Sometimes 
towards  the  end  of  the  period  the  synods  began  to  be 
drawn  from  larger  areas  than  were  circumscribed  by  pro- 
vincial lines.  Thus  a  system  of  synods  was  inaugurated 
which  reached  its  culmination  in  the  Ecumenical  Coun- 
cils. Types  of  the  intermediate  synod  are  those  held  at 
Aries  (A.  D.  314)  and  at  Elvira  (A.  D.  306). 

Owing  to  their  natural,  political  or  historical  importance 
to  the  Church  certain  of  the  episcopal   seats   acquired 


ECCLESIASTICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  63 

a   higher  place   of  honor    and    influence    than    the    rest, 
and  were  in  a  sense  lifted  above  the  rest  into 
Patriarciiates.     archbishoprics,    exarchates    or    patriarchates. 
Rome.  Such    Were    the    bishoprics    of  Jerusalem,    of 

Antioch,  of  Alexandria  and  of  Rome.  The  last 
of  these  as  the  see  of  the  capital  of  the  empire  claimed 
and  was  in  general  accorded  larger  influence  than  the 
other  patriarchates.  Thus  arose  the  primacy  of  the  see 
of  Rome. 

As  the  Church  grew  in  numbers  and  importance  it  be- 
came more  and  more  difficult  and  at  the  same  time  more 
and  more  necessary  to'  preserve  its  purity.  A 
Law'^^'^^'^'^^^  system  of  discipline  became  indispensable. 
This  was  evolved  according  to  need  and  oc- 
casion. It  was  embodied  in  a  collection  of  laws  or  canons 
under  the  name  of  Apostolic  Constifictio/is  and  Canons  of 
the  Holy  Apostles. 

The  chief  and  only  penalty  inflicted  by  the  Church  was 
exclusion  from  the  privileges  of  church  membership,  or 
excommunication.  The  offender  was,  accord- 
Discipline,  ing  to  apostolic  precept  and  example,  separated 
from  the  body  of  believers.  A  way  was  left 
open,  however,  for  his  restoration  when  he  should  sin- 
cerely repent.  This  restoration  was  quite  as  formal  and 
solemn  as  excommunication,  and  followed  a  long  process 
of  confession  and  humiliation  in  token  of  the  sincerity 
and  earnestness. of  the  penitent. 

Naturally  different  communities  and   different  genera- 
tions in  the  same  community  varied   much   in  the  strict- 
ness with  which  they  exercised  discipline  and 
Schism  of         the  ri^or  with  which  they  demanded  penitence 

Cahxtus  and  -^        ...  ^  .  -^       ,      .       .  r    .y 

Hippoiytus.  as  a  condition  for  the  readmission  or  the  ex- 
communicated. A  series  of  controversies 
arose  with  respect  to  this  point,  beginning  with  the  attack 
of  Hippoiytus  on  Calixtus,  bishop  of  Rome,  for  laxity  in 
restoring  all  manner  of  offenders  to  the  privileges  of  com- 
munion. The  discontent  in  the  church  of  Rome  with  the 
looseness  of  Calixtus  led  a  party  in  that  church  to  sep- 
arate themselves  from  it,  choosing  Hippoiytus  as  their 
bishop. 


64  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Somewhat  later,  when   the  bishop  Cornelius  showed  a 
similar  lack  of  rigor  in  discipline,  Novatian,  a  presbyter, 

rose  up  in  opposition  to  the  bishop  and  was 
Novatian.         made  bishop  of  a    schismatic   church,   which 

grew  to  considerable  proportions  in  conse- 
quence of  the  importance  assumed  by  the  question  of 
discipline  after  the  troubles  of  the  Decian  persecution, 
Novatian,  however,  took  extreme  ground,  contending  that 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  Church  to  preserve  its  own  purity, 
and  on  no  condition  to  readmit  those  who  might  once 
depart  from  its  perfect  way. 

Another   controversy    on    the    same    subject   arose    in 
Carthage,  where  Cyprian  adopted   the  rigorous  policy  of 

refusing  readmission  to  the  fallen  (Japsi), 
Fortunauir'      t^osc  who   had  givcn  up  their  Scriptures  {tra- 

ditores),  and  those  who  had  obtained  certifi- 
cates of  having  sacriliced  to  the  heathen  gods  {libellatici). 
A  party  of  confessors  asked  for  the  restoration  of  these 
and  denounced  Cyprian  as  unworthy  to  rule  over  confes- 
sors, inasmuch  as  he  had  himself  fled  from  persecution. 
They  chose  as  their  leader  Felicissimus  a  deacon  without 
Cyprian's  consent  and  set  up  a  bishop,  Fortunatus,  for 
themselves.  Upon  the  assembling  of  a  synod  Cyprian  so 
far  modified  his  position  as  to  admit  offenders  at  the 
point  of  death  and  the  schism  was  healed,  though  only 
after  the  lapse  of  some  time. 

Still  another  schism  growing  out  of  the  question  of  dis- 
cipline was  the  Meletian  in  Alexandria.      Here  the  bishop 

Peter,  although  in  prison  for  being  a  Chris- 
Meietius.  tian,  declared  for  the  mild  treatment  of  those 

who  had  denied  Christ  under  persecution  (dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Diocletian).  Meletius  stood  for  the  more 
rigid  principle.  He  ordained  several  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons, and  a  schism  ensued  lasting  for  some  time. 

In  the  matter  of  divine   worship,  a  tendency  made  its 
appearance  to  separate   the  agape  from  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, in  consequence  of  which  the  agape  fell 
Worship.  gradually  into  disuse.      The   Lord's    Supper 

itself  was  separated  from  the  ordinary  service 
of  worship  and  a  higher  degree  of  sacredness  assigned  to 


ECCLESIASTICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  65 

it.  The  service  was  tluis  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which 
the  first,  called  the  missa  catechumcnorum,  open  to  all, 
consisted  of  the  reading  of  Scripture,  prayer  and  sermon. 
The  second  part  under  the  name  of  missa  fidelinm  in- 
cluded the  Eucharist  with  appropriate  services  of  prayer 
and  sacred  song. 

In  connection  with  baptism,  the  compacting  of  the  or- 
ganization of  the   Church   made  it  necessary  to  insist  on 

the  admission  only  of  such  as  were  well  pre- 
Baptism.  pared  for  membership.     To  this  end  a  period 

of  instruction  was  set  apart  for  such  as  were 
to  present  themselves  for  baptism.  During  this  period 
candidates  were  called  "Catechumens."  At  first  baptism 
was  administered  with  simplicity.  But  at  the  end  of  the 
second  and  the  beginning  of  the  third  centuries  an  elab- 
orate ritual  was  observed  in  connection  with  it.  The  can- 
didate was  required  to  declare  his  faith,  to  renounce  the 
world  and  the  devil,  the  water  was  blessed  by  the  bishop 
and  other  minor  acts  symbolical  of  some  aspect  of  the 
truth  in  baptism  were  performed.  A  question  arose  as 
to  the  validity  of  baptism  administered  by  heretics.  The 
North  African  Church,  under  the  influence  of  Tertullian, 
denied  the  validity  of  such  baptism  and  rebaptized  her- 
etics when  they  applied  for  admission  into  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  Roman  Church,  however,  followed  the  op- 
posite practice.  They  admitted  such  persons  on  the  im- 
position of  hands,  provided  they  had  been  baptized 
already  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  The  point  was  ear- 
nestly contended  for  by  Cyprian  in  behalf  of  the  strict 
view,  and  by  Stephen,  bishop  of  Rome,  in  behalf  of  the 
Roman  practice.  Gradually  the  latter  prevailed  and  was 
adopted  formally  at  the  council  of  Aries  (A.  D.  314). 

Divine  worship  necessarily  implies  stated  times  at  which 
it  is   offered.     The   Lord's  day  (Sunday)  was  uniformly 

observed  as  the  weekly  festival  day  commem- 
Sacred  Sea-       orating  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.     The 

Sabbath  (Saturday)  though  not  altogether  dis- 
regarded was  less  and  less  observed  as  the  period  came 
to  its  close.     As  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  formed  the 
basis  of  the  weekly  feast  day,  so  it  also  did  of  the  yearly. 
5 


66  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  Jewish  Passover  was  adopted  and  Christianized  by 
the  putting  of  Christ  and  his  suffering  and  triumph  over 
death  as  the  events  signified  in  it.  The  crucifixion  was 
commemorated  by  a  fast  varying  in  duration,  in  different 
localities,  from  one  day  to  forty  (Quadragesima).  Resur- 
rection day  was  celebrated  as  the  great  day  of  the  year. 
It  was  followed  by  Ascension  day,  forty  days  later,  and 
by  Pentecost,  which  fitly  closed  the  circle  of  days  observed 
through  the  year. 

Some  difference  in  practice  existed  through  the  last 
part  of  the  second  century  as  to  the  date  of  Easter. 
Jewish  Christians  taking  Christ  as  the  anti- 
Quartodeciman  type  of  the  paschal  lamb,  and  continuing  in 
on  rovers),  ^-^(-j^gj.  respects  the  idea  and  form  of  observance 
of  the  Jewish  Passover,  always  kept  the  14th  day  of  Nisan 
as  the  day  of  the  crucifixion  and  the  following  Sunday  as 
Easter.  The  Western  or  Roman  Christians  insisted  on 
observing  Easter  on  Sunday  without  reference  to  the  day 
of  the  month.  They  therefore  kept  the  Friday  following 
the  14th  day  of  Nisan  as  Crucifixion  day,  and  thus  brought 
Easter  on  Sunday.  Those  who  kept  the  14th  of  Nisan 
were  called  "  Quartodecimans"  (Fourteenth-day  ob- 
servers), and  the  controversy  which  ensued  was  called  the 
Quartodeciman  controversy-  In  the  first  phase  of  this 
controversy  Polycarp  stood  for  the  Oriental,  and  Anice- 
tus,  bishop  of  Rome,  for  the  Roman  custom.  Later,  Vic- 
tor, bishop  of  Rome,  and  Polycrates  of  Ephesus  appeared  as 
the  contestants.  Neither  party  prevailed  formally,  but 
the  Western  custom  became  gradually  the  usage  of  the 
whole  Church, 

Increasing  numbers  made  the  older  meeting-places  of 
Christians  for  worship   entirely  inadequate   for  the  age 
under    consideration.     Under    the  provisions 
Church  of  the  law  governing  the  mutual-help  societies 

Building.  ^^^  Church  acquired    land    during   the    early 

years  of  the  third  century  with  the  purpose,  no  doubt,  of 
erecting  churches.  If  they  did  this,  the  buildings  were 
destroyed  during  the  persecutions  of  the  third  century. 
From  the  few  data  left  concerning  the  form  of  these  early 
buildings  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  there  were  several  types 


ECCLESIASTICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  67 

of  church  building.  One  of  these  was  patterned  after 
the  Jewish  synagogue,  another  after  the  basilica  or  large 
hall  of  a  Roman  estate,  a  third  was  probably  modeled 
after  the  schola  or  clubhouse  of  the  mutual-help  society. 

Following  the  custom  of  the  Jews,  the  Christians  of  the 
early  ages  buried  their  dead  in  tombs  hewn  out  of  the 
rock.  To  do  this,  however,  near  large  cities 
Catacombs.  it  was  ueccssary  to  dig  deep  and  create  a  kind 
of  labyrinth.  Several  such  subterranean  cem- 
eteries called  "  catacombs  "  are  known.  The  most  ex- 
tensive catacombs  are  situated  near  Rome.  They  con- 
sist of  a  great  number  of  rooms  connected  by  alleys  or 
corridors.  The  walls  of  each  chamber  are  lined  with 
deep  niches  which  served  as  the  depositories  for  the 
bodies  of  the  departed.  Parts  of  these  catacombs  have 
been  supposed  to  have  served  as  places  of  meeting  for 
worship  during  the  Decian  and   Diocletian  persecutions. 

The  only  remains  of  decorative  art  are  those  found  in 
the  catacombs,  and  consist  mainly  of  symbolic  representa- 
tions of  the  Christian  life.  The  most  original 
Emblematic  emblem  uscd  here  is  the  fish  representing  the 
Saviour.*  Other  symbols  of  Christ  more  ob- 
vious in  significance  are  the  Shepherd,  the  Fisherman, 
the  Lamb,  the  Vine.  Life  was  portrayed  under  the  figure 
of  a  ship  sailing  on  a  sea.  Historical  scenes  drawn  from 
the  Old  Testament  are  also  found. 

The  desire  to  live  a  spotless  life  was  naturally  generated 
by  the  gospel  in  the  hearts  of  all  believers.  In  some 
this  desire  was  developed  in  such  an  intense 
Asceticism.  degree  as  to  lead  to  the  denial  of  free  vent  to 
the  appetites.  The  feeling  that  the  body  as 
material  was  the  seat  of  evil  in  man,  a  result  of  Oriental 
dualistic  forms  of  thought,  no  doubt,  contributed  some- 
what in  fostering  this  feeling.  The  result  was  the  growth 
of  asceticism  within  the  Christian  Church.  Ascetics  were 
distinguished  by  their  abstinence  from  pleasing  food  and 
from  marriage.     During  the  latter  half  of  the  second  cen- 

*  I'xOvc  meaning  "  fish  "  was  made  to  yield  the  five  initial  letters 
of  the  Lord's  descriptive  name,  as  follows  :  'I  (r/aovQ),  X  [juaroc:), 
e  (eoi-),  T'  (ioc),  S  (uTT]p). 


68  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

tury  they  formed  themselves  into  a  sect,  that  of  the  En- 
cratites,  to  which  the  apologist  Tatian  was  attracted. 

In  the  third  century  a  class  of  ascetics  appeared,  who, 
in  order  to  live  more  in  accordance  with  their  ideas  of 
Christian  holiness,  withdrew  from  populous 
Hermits—  places,  hoping  thus  to  avoid  the  vanities  and 
temptations  of  the  world.  These  were  called 
"  hermits."  *  They  lived  in  deserts.  The  earliest  of  the 
hermits  is  Anthony.  He  was  born  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century,  in  Memphis,  and  having  determined  to 
live  the  life  of  a  hermit,  chose  as  his  residence  a  ruined 
tower  far  from  the  habitations  of  other  men.  Here  he 
lived  and,  according  to  tradition,  struggled  fiercely  with 
temptations.  During  the  course  of  one  of  the  persecu- 
tions, hearing  in  some  manner  of  the  trials  of  the  Chris- 
tians, he  visited  Alexandria,  encouraged  the  persecuted, 
and  incidentally  his  reputation  for  sanctity  became  the 
occasionfor  others  to  follow  his  example.  Another  famous 
hermit  was  Paul  of  Thebes,  who  dwelt  in  a  cave  farther 
away  from  the  world  even  than  Anthony. 

Rather  loosely  allied  with  Christianity  and  yet  in  a  sense 
associated  with  it  was  the  form  of  religion  taught  by  Mani 
(Manichceus)  and  called  Manichaeism.  Mani 
Manichsism.  (^A.  D.  216-277)  was  desccndcd  from  a  distin- 
guished Magian  family.  He  traveled  from 
his  native  city  in  Babylonia,  then  under  the  dominion  of 
Persia,  far  into  India  and  China.  On  his  return  he  pro- 
claimed his  new  doctrines,  made  adherents,  was  perse- 
cuted and  finally  cruelly  put  to  death.  The  system  he 
taught  was  essentially  a  dualistic  religious  philosophy.  He 
held  to  the  original  and  independent  existence  of  the  two 
principles  of  Good  and  Evil.  From  these,  through  a 
mythological  account,  he  derived  the  world.  In  the  pres- 
ent constitution  of  the  world  the  good  is  found  in  the 
light,  therefore  in  the  sun  and  moon.  Man  contains  in 
himself  elements  of  both.  To  redeem  the  good  in  man 
i\\Q.  Jesus  pafibi/is  comes  into  the  world,  and,  while  teach- 
ing men  the  way  of  deliverance,  appears  to  suffer  at  the 

*  From  ipjifiog,  "  desert ;  "  also  Eremites. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  Sg 

hands  of  Satan.  Associated  with  this  system  of  philoso- 
phy, Manichaeism  includes  an  organization  and  worship. 
The  body  of  believers  was  divided  into  two  classes  :  the 
initiated  or  elect,  and  hearers  or  catechumens.  Over  the 
whole  body  one  president  ruled  as  vicar  of  Mani.  He 
was,  however,  assisted  by  twelve  apostles.  These  had 
seventy-two  bishops  under  them,  and  these  again  a  num- 
ber of  presbyters  and  deacons.  The  worship  of  the 
Manichaeans  was  twofold — internal  and  external.  The 
external  was  simple  and  spiritual  ;  the  internal  was  kept 
secret.  Their  moral  code  was  summed  up  in  three  laws 
called  the  law  of  the  lips  {signaculum  oris),  which  bound 
the  faithful  to  close  his  lips  against  the  entrance  of  that 
which  was  evil,  animal  food  and  wine,  and  the  exit  of  im- 
pure words.  The  seal  of  the  hands  {signaculum  vianiiuni) 
bound  him  against  evil  work  with  the  hand,  and  the  seal 
of  the  bosom  {signacuhnn  sinus)  bound  him  against  all 
sexual  pleasure.  The  Manichseans  found  a  large  number 
of  adherents  in  the  West  and  occasioned  not  a  little 
trouble  to  the  Church,  They  were,  however,  persecuted 
as  a  foreign  and  pernicious  sect,  as  early  as  A.  D.  290, 
under  Diocletian,  and  always  zealously  repudiated  by  the 
Church  as  a  heretical  people. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  NICENE  AGE  (a.  D.  325-590). 

Church  and  State. 

The  relation  of  Christianity  to  the  imperial  government 
was  destined  to  remain  a  doubtful  one  as  long  as  the  im- 
perial power  was  shared  by  two  men  as  differ- 
Constantine       gnt    as   Constantine  and  Licinius.      Constan- 

and  Licinius.         •iiif--i  i  i-  •, 

tme  had  dehnitely  made  up  his  mmd,  not  only 
to  leave  Christianity  unmolested,  but  to  favor  it.  He 
further  took  up  the  idea  of  the  uniiication  of  the  empire, 
broached  by  Diocletian,  and  determined  to  realize  it  by 
making  the  Christian  religion  the  one  religion  of  the 
State.  Whatever  the  truth  be  concerning  his  conversion.* 
he  certainly  grew  to  be  a  consistent  friend  of  the  religion 
of  the  cross,  and  adopted  this  emblem  (the  cross  or  lab- 
arum)  as  the  sign  on  his  standards.  Licinius,  on  the 
other  hand,  continued  hostile  to  Christianity  in  spite  of 
the  edict  of  Milan  which  he  had  issued  jointly  with  Con- 
stantine in  A.  D.  313.  The  solution  of  the  difference 
could  only  come  in  one  way,  viz.  by  the  concentration  of 
the  power  into  the  hands  of  the  one  or  the  other.  This 
was  accomplished  after  a  short  struggle.  Constantine  re- 
mained the  sole  emperor  in  A.  D.  324.  The  following  year 
he  transferred  the  seat  of  empire  from  Rome  to  the  new 
city  which  he  founded  on  the  site  of  the  old  Byzantium, 
and  which  has  been  called  after  him,  Constantinople, 
though  he  designed  that  it  should  receive  the  name  of 
New  Rome. 

*  According  to  a  story  which  was  early  circulated  he  saw  on  the 
eve  of  his  victory  over  Maxentius  a  bright  cross  in  the  western 
skies  with  the  motto  "  By  this  Sign  Conquer"  {^v  tovtg)  vlko). 
70 


THE  NICENE  AGE.  ^i 

From  the  date  of  this  event,  whose  revolutionary  influ- 
ence can   hardly  be   overstated,  the  Church  became  the 
recipient  of  a  number  of  immunities,  privileges 
Christianity       and   favors,  amounting  to  its   adoption  as  the 

made  the  State  ,  *  "  ^ 

Religion.  State    church.       Laws    were    enacted    for   the 

protection  of  Christians  against  Jews,  Sunday 
was  recognized  as  a  holiday,  and  public  business  was  for- 
bidden on  it,  churches  and  burial-places  confiscated  dur- 
ing the  persecutions  were  ordered  to  be  restored  to  the 
Christians,  new  and  much  more  costly  and  imposing 
churches  were  erected,  grants  of  money  for  other  ecclesi- 
astical purposes  were  made,  and  finally  fifty  elegantly  exe- 
cuted manuscripts  of  the  Bible  (the  Septuagint  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  the  Greek  New  Testament)  were  ordered  to 
be  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea. 
Constantine's  private  life  was  not  altogether  moulded 
by  the  spirit  of  the  religion  he  favored.  He  retained  the 
title  and  exercised  the  functions  of  the  heathen 
Character  of      office  of  Poutifex  Maximus.     He  was  guilty  of 

Constantine.  ,  r    ,  •  ^,    •  i     i  •  -r 

His  sons.  the    death    or   his  son    Crispus  and   his    wife 

Fausta,  besides  several  more  distant  kinsmen. 
Nevertheless  he  formally  entered  the  Church  and  received 
Christian  baptism  just  before  his  death  (A.  D.  337).  His 
sons  divided  the  empire;  Constantine  II.  (A.  D.  337-340) 
ruled  in  the  northwestern  portion;  Constans  (A.  D.  337- 
350)  in  the  West,  and  Constantius  (A.  D.  337-361)  in  the 
East.  They  all  continued  towards  Christianity,  as  they 
understood  it  (i.  e.  adopting  Arianism  as  the  true  form 
of  it),  the  policy  of  State  protection  and  interference. 

Julian,  called  "  the  Apostate"  (A.  D  361-363.)  became 
the  leader  of  a  short-lived  pagan  reaction.     He  was  born 
in  Constantinople   in  A.  D.  331.     He  was  the 
Julian.  sQt^   Qf  Constantius,  the  younger   half-brother 

of  Constantine  the  Great.  When  Constan- 
tine's sons  succeeded  their  father,  Constantius  was  put 
to  death,  and  Julian  and  his  older  half-brother  were  spared 
only  because  they  were  considered  harmless.  The 
jealousy  of  the  emperor  Constantius  afterwards  caused 
them  to  be  banished  to  Capadocia,  where  they  were  edu- 
cated in  the   Christian  faith,  and  prepared   for  clerical 


72 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


service  as  lectors.  But  Julian  regarded  himself  as  the 
victim  of  Christian  persecution.  In  A.  D.  351  Gallus  was 
created  Caesar  by  the  emperor,  and  Julian  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Constantinople,  but  was  shortly  again  exiled 
to  Nicomedia,  He  subsequently  obtained  permission  to 
visit  Athens,  and  pursued  his  studies  in  that  city.  On 
the  death  of  Gallus  he  was  recalled  to  Constantinople, 
and  Constantius  created  him  Ctesar,  and  gave  him  com- 
mand of  the  armies  in  Gaul.  There  he  gained  high  dis- 
tinction for  military  skill  and  personal  bravery.  On  the 
death  of  Constantius  he  became  sole  emperor.  On  his 
accession  he  made  a  public  avowal  of  paganism  of  which 
he  had  been  a  secret  adherent  from  the  age  of  twenty.  It 
was  no  ordinary  profession,  but  the  expression  of  a  strong 
authoritative  conviction.  The  great  aim  and  controlling 
principle  of  his  government  was  the  suppression  of 
Christianity  and  the  restoration  of  the  pagan  worship. 
He  re-opened  the  temples  which  had  been  closed,  and 
ordered  decaying  ones  to  be  repaired  ;  removed  the  cross 
from  the  military  standards,  the  court-room,  the  imperial 
statue,  etc.,  and  substituted  pagan  emblems  in  its  place. 
A  reformed  and  restored  paganism  was  again  to  be  the 
religion  of  the  State,  and  to  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  a 
state  establishment.  His  reign  was  too  short  to  show 
what  precise  form  this  pagan  revival  might  ultimately 
have  taken.  His  career  was  cut  short  in  a  battle  with 
the  Persians.  Had  he  returned  from  this  war  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  he  would  have  opened  a  direct  attack  on 
the  Church.  He  was  the  last  Roman  emperor  who  was 
hostile  to  Christianity.* 

After  this  short  interruption    the  policy  of  Constantine 

was    resumed    by    Jovian  and  continued  throughout  the 

period.     At  the  death  of  Theodosius   the  em- 

Restoration  of    pire  was  divided  into  the  eastern  and  western 

Christianity.  '  ,  i  i  -  *  i  •  ■         ^  i 

branches  under  his  sons  Arcaduis  m  the 
East  and  Honorius  in  the  West.  The  Western  em- 
pire succumbed  before  the  barbarians  in  476,  under  Rom- 

*  It  was  commonly  reported  among  the  Christians  that  he  ex- 
claimed just  before  he  expired,  "  Thou  hast  conquered,  after  all,  O 
Galilean  !  "     But  for  this  report  there  was  no  foundation. 


THE  NICENE  AGE.  ^^ 

ulus  Augustulus.  The  Eastern  continued  under  a  series 
of  rulers,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was  Justinian  I. 
the  Great  (A.  D.  527-565). 

When  Christianity  was  adopted  as  the  state  religion  it 
naturally  assumed  the  aggressive  attitude  towards  pagan- 
ism.    During  the  brief  reign  of  Julian  a  vigor- 
Attitudeof       q^s   effort  was  made   by  a   number  of  pagan 

Pagan  Philos-       ,  .    ,  ,         -'      .   .  .      ,  ^    9 

ophy.  thmkers  to  reverse  the  position  of  the  parties, 

but  with  its  failure  heathenism  was  compelled 
to  take  the  defensive.  Instead  of  claiming,  as  heretofore, 
the  right  of  the  old  faith  to  dominate,  its  champions  now 
pleaded  for  its  toleration  on  the  ground  of  its  historic  asso- 
ciations. This  was  the  position  taken  by  such  men  as 
Libanius,  the  rhetorician  of  Nicomedia,  Themistius  of 
Constantinople  and  Symmachus  of  Rome.  More  uncom- 
promising in  their  paganism  were  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
known  for  valuable  contributions  to  our  acquaintance 
with  the  history  of  the  times,  Eunapius  and  Zosimus  and 
the  pagan  school  at  Athens  which  was  suppressed  by  Jus- 
tinian in  the  sixth  century.  In  Alexandria  heathen  phi- 
losophy (Neo-platonism)  found  a  brilliant  champion  in  the 
person  of  Hypatia,  who  lectured  in  Alexandria  on  the 
subject  of  philosophy  and  was  cruelly  murdered  by  a  mob 
on  account  of  her  supposed  opposition  to  the  bishop 
Cyril. 

As  the  Church  assumed  more   and  more  this  aggres- 
sive  attitude   towards  paganism,  it  was  natural  that  the 
imperial  government  should  reflect  this  atti- 
Suppression  of  tudc  in  an  ever  increasing  intolerance  of  hea- 

Heathenism.  ,  .  ti  r      ^   r^         •  /«t-v 

thenism.  Accordingly,  we  nnd  Gratian  (A.  D. 
375-383)  first  giving  up  the  title  and  office  of  Pontifex 
Maximus,  as  a  heathen  office,  and  withdrawing  state  sup- 
port from  the  Vestal  Virgins.  Valentinian  II.  (A.  D.  375- 
392)  removed  the  altar  of  Victory  from  the  vestibule 
of  the  senate  chamber,  where  it  had  stood  for  centuries 
as  the  emblem  and  instrument  of  the  old  religion  in  rela- 
tion to  the  State.  In  the  East,  Theodosius  the  Great 
(A.  D.  379-395)  issued  a  strict  prohibition  of  idolatry, 
making  it  a  penal  offence  even  to  pour  out  libations  to 
the  heathen  gods  (A.  D.  392).     In  a  short  time  heathen- 


74 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


ism  was  extinct  in  the  cities  and  was  to  be  found  only 
in  rural  districts  ;  hence  it  was  called  "  paganism  "  (the 
religion  of  the  pagani,  that  is  the  peasants).  The  last 
vestiges  of  heathenism  as  a  state  religion  disappeared 
with  the  suppression  of  the  Lupercalia  in  Rome,  A.  D. 
492 ;  and  the  closing  of  the  school  of  philosophy  in 
Athens  by  Justinian  in  A.  D.  529  put  an  end  to  the  last 
center  of  diffusion  of  pagan  ideas.  Justinian  further  com- 
pelled all  his  subjects  to  be  baptized. 

A  compromise  between  paganism   and  Christianity  was 
attempted  by  a  sect  called  Hypsistarians.     These  com- 
bined lire  and  sun  worship  with  certain  Jewish 
Hypsistarians    ideas  and  claimed  to  worship  "  The  Almighty  " 

and  Euchetae.  ,  ^tt-     i  d  i  .i      •  * 

or  the  Highest,  whence  their  name.* 
Another  similar  sect  was  that  of  the  Messalians  whose 
sole  form  of  worship  was  prayer  offered  to  the  Sovereign 
of  the  Universe,  whence  they  were  also  called  Euchetae. t 
Beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  empire  the  fortunes  of 
Christianity  were  diverse.     In  Persia  its  adoption  by  the 

Roman  State  put  it  under  suspicion,  and  per- 
Christianity       secutlou,  unkuowu  before,  began  to  be  expe- 

in  Persia.  .  ,',,,..  i  i 

nenced  by  Christians  as  they  were  supposed 
to  be  in  sympathy  with  Rome  in  its  war  on  Persia.  Such 
a  persecution  was  undertaken  by  Shahpur  (Sapor)  in  spite 
of  the  protests  of  Constantius  in  A.  D.  343  and  continued 
till  A.  D.  381.  At  that  date  Bishop  Maruthas  of  Tagrit  ob- 
tained exemption  from  persecution  for  Christians,  but 
in  A.  D.  414  another  outburst  of  heathen  fanaticism  put 
them  under  the  ban  once  more.  From  this  state  Theo- 
dosius  II.  delivered  them  by  a  compact  with  the  Persian 
king  Varanes,  promising  in  return  toleration  for  Zoroas- 
trians  in  the  Roman  Empire. 

The  Christian  Church  of  Armenia  (mentioned  as  already 
in  existence  at  the  end  of  the  second  century)  was,  through 

the  efforts  of  Gregory,  surnamed  the  Illumi- 
in  Armenia.       nator,  taken    into  favor  by  Tiridates   II.  and 

given  the  position  of  the  state  church  nearly 
at  the  same  time  as  in  the  Roman  Empire.     It  also  made 

*  'Tip'iaTof — Highest.  Hypsistarian — a  worshiper  of  the  Highest, 
t  Ev;(r/' — prayer.     Euchetae — "  Praying  people." 


THE  NICENE  AGE. 


75 


vast  strides  forward  in  growth.  It  gained  its  independence 
as  a  national  cliurch  in  A.  D.  366,  when  at  a  synod  held  at 
Valarschapad,  Narses  the  patriarch  of  the  national  church 
was  recognized  as  Catholicos  (primate).  Somewhat  later 
under  Mesrob  (A.  D.  441),  who  invented  an  alphabet  and 
translated  the  Bible  into  Armenian,  the  beginning  of  a  lit- 
erature was  made.  Moses  Choronensisis  the  chief  repre- 
sentative of  this  literature,  having  written  the  history  of 
the  people. 

To  this  period  belongs  the  foundation  of  the  Church 
of  Abyssinia.  This  event  is  ascribed  to  the  labors  of  two 
young  men,  ^desius  and  Frumentius,  who 
In  Abyssinia,  were  providentially  led  into  the  country  in 
consequence  of  the  shipwreck  and  death  of 
the  merchant  Meropius  with  whom  they  were  associated. 
Their  preaching  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  the  king, 
and  the  way  was  opened  for  further  labors  among  the 
people  by  monks  from  Egypt. 

In  the  West,  Christianity  came  in  contact  with  the  Teu- 
tonic and  Keltic  races.  Of  the  Teutons,  the  Goths  be- 
came acquainted  with  it  through  the  Roman 
G^ths^''^^  captives  whom  they  carried  home  from  their 
battles  with  the  imperial  troops.  The  apostle 
of  the  Goths,  however,  that  is  he  who  organized  and  placed 
Christianity  on  a  sure  footing  among  them,  was  Ulfilas 
(A.  D.  311-383).  He  was  probably  born  a  Christian  and 
trained  for  service  in  the  Church.  While  on  a  mission  as 
embassador  of  the  Gothic  king  at  Constantinople  he  was 
consecrated  bishop.  As  Arianism  was  the  form  of  belief 
in  the  ascendancy  at  the  time,  Ulfilas  was  and  remained 
an  Arian.  Returning  to  his  own  people  he  engaged  in 
numerous  and  varied  labors  among  them.  He  founded 
churches,  ordained  a  clergy,  and  translated  the  Scriptures 
into  the  Gothic.  To  do  this,  however,  he  was  compelled 
first  to  invent  an  alphabet.  His  translation  is  considered 
a  model  of  faithfulness  to  the  originals  and  of  idiomatic 
Gothic.  He  did  not  translate  the  Books  of  Kings,  deem- 
ing that  the  Goths  were  by  nature  warlike  enough  and 
would  likely  be  stirred  up  to  undue  ferocity  by  reading^ 
about  the  wars  of  the  Jews.     The  Gothic  Church  was  sub- 


76  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

jected  to  persecution  repeatedly,  but  endured  with  heroism 
and  carried  the  gospel  to  the  Suevi  in  Spain  and  the 
Vandals  of  Pannonia. 

Another  Teutonic  tribe,  the  Salian  Franks,  had  made 

their  way  into  ancient  Gaul,  taken  possession  of  the  land, 

and  virtually  extinguished  all  Roman  institu- 

Amongthe  tions.     Their   king  Clovis   (Chlodwig,  A.  D. 

I  ranks.  ».  „\      .      .  ^  . 

481-511)  was  married  to  a  Christian  princess, 
Clotilde.  Her  attempts  to  win  him  over  to  her  own  faith 
were  unsuccessful.  But  the  king,  having  been  hard 
pressed  in  a  battle  with  the  Alemanni,  resolved  to  embrace 
the  religion  of  Christ,  if  Christ  should  hear  his  prayer  and 
give  him  the  victory.  This  turned  out  to  be  the  issue  of 
the  battle,  and  Clovis  was  baptized  and  compelled  his 
army  to  be  baptized.  This  conversion  naturally  was  very 
superficial.  The  Franks  carried  into  the  Church  many 
of  their  vices,  such  as  cruelty,  polygamy,  perjury  and 
simony.  The  most  renowned  of  the  bishops  of  the  Frank 
Church  at  this  early  period  was  Gregory  of  Tours  (A.  D. 
540-594),  whose  History  of  the  Franks  is  written  in  the 
spirit  of  mediceval  credulity,  but  still  is  very  valuable  as  a 
source  of  information. 

Beyond  the  certainty  that  a  Christian  Church  existed  in 
Britain  at  this  period,  very  little  is  known  about  it.  The 
population  was  Keltic.  From  later  data  it  is 
In  Britain.  ^q  be  inferred  that  this  Church  had  an  inde- 
pendence and  character  of  its  own.  Its  points 
of  difference  from  the  Roman  Church  were,  (i)  The  time 
of  observing  Easter.  They  kept  it  on  the  Sunday  follow- 
ing the  full  moon  in  March.  (2)  The  form  of  tonsure. 
They  cut  the  hair  on  the  forehead  and  temples,  making  the 
shape  of  the  crescent,  while  the  Romans  cut  a  circle  on 
the  top  of  the  head.  (3)  Government  by  councils,  and 
ignorance  of,  or  refusal  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome. 

Ireland  was  also  inhabited   at  this  period  by  a  Keltic 
race  and  was  known  as  Hibernia  and  Scotia.     The  exact 
date  and  circumstances  of  the  introduction  of 
In  Ireland.        ^j-jg  gospel  here  is   hidden  in  obscurity.      Dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  fifth  century  Coelestine, 


THE  NICENE  AGE. 


77 


bishop  of  Rome,  sent  Palladius  to  the  island,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  Palladius  accomplished  anything.  The 
real  "  Apostle  of  Ireland  "  is  St.  Patrick  (Patricias,  A.  D. 
378-460).  The  exact  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but 
he  was  the  son  of  a  deacon  and  taken  by  marauders  from 
his  birthplace  into  Ireland.  Here  he  was  employed  in 
taking  care  of  sheep.  He  was  released  from  this  bond- 
age and  went  to  his  parents,  but  the  needs  of  Ireland  had 
made  an  impression  on  him,  and  he  resolved  to  devote 
himself  to  the  evangelization  of  its  people.  Going  back, 
he  gave  himself  up  to  perpetual  labors.  He  traveled  the 
whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  country,  preaching  and 
founding  churches  and  monasteries,  baptizing,  teaching, 
ordaining  clergy  and  enduring  privations  and  sufferings  in 
the  midst  of  all  these  labors.  He  was  remarkably  suc- 
cessful. In  less  than  a  hundred  years  from  the  date  of 
the  beginning  of  his  work  the  whole  island  was  Christian- 
ized. Associated  with  him  was  St.  Bridget,  but  very  little 
is  known  of  her  work. 

Scotland  was  called  at  this  age  Caledonia  and  was  in- 
habited by  the  Picts.     St.  Ninian  and  St.  Kentigern,  the 

first  in  the  fourth  century  and  the  second  in 
In  .Scotland,      the  sixth,  are  named  as  the  earliest  evangelists 

in  the  country.  But  their  history  is  overlaid 
with  so  much  legendary  material  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
extricate  the  kernel  of  fact  in  it.  The  real  Apostle  of  Scot- 
land is  Columba  (A.  D.  521-597).  He  was  born  in  Ireland, 
but  upon  invitation  from  the  king  of  Scotland  went  over 
to  that  country  and  established  himself  on  the  little  island 
of  lona  (Hy,  or  I).  From  this  place,  where  he  established 
a  monastery,  as  from  headquarters,  he  went  out  on  evan- 
gelizing expeditions.  His  zeal  and  consecration  were  very 
great  and  his  success  rapid.  Other  centers  were  estab- 
lished on  the  model  of  the  monastery  at  lona  and  the 
country  was  soon  Christianized. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  HIERARCHY  AND   POLITY. 

The    ecclesiastical  polity  developed  during  the  Ante- 
Nicene  age   remained  in  its  main  outlines,  theoretically, 
unchanged.     Practically,    however,    the   post- 
Extension  of     apostolic  distinction  that  had  been  introduced 

Episcopal  Ad-     .  '■  ,  .  .    ,  .  i       rr         i        i  i 

ministration,  into  the  presbyterial  or  episcopal  omce  had  be- 
come intensified.  The  use  of  the  terms  Bishop 
and  Presbyter,  as  severally  indicating  two  distinct  orders 
of  the  clergy,  had  become  more  thoroughly  established. 
The  power  of  the  bishop  had  been  increased,  and  that  of 
the  presbyter  had  been  seriously  diminished.  The  deacon 
was  regarded  as  a  third  and  inferior  order  of  the  clergy, 
and  had  been  permitted  to  participate  in  some  of  the 
functions  of  the  superior  orders.  Bishops,  presbyters 
and  deacons,  continued  to  rule  the  churches  with  the 
duties  and  prerogatives  already  attained  by  their  respec- 
tive offices  previously.  But  the  ofifice  of  the  bishop 
became  more  and  more  important,  and  that  of  presby- 
ter less  and  less  so.  When  the  empire  was  completely 
reduced  into  a  Christian  State  the  territories  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  touched  each  other,  not  leav- 
ing, as  previously,  intervals  of  territory  between  the 
cities,  over  which  no  bishop  had  any  authority.  Thus 
the  whole  country  came  under  the  direct  episcopal  admin- 
istration. 

The  legal  position  of  the  clergy  was  gradually  defined 
by  the  concession  to  them  on  the  part  of  the  State  of  cer- 
tain privileges,  (i)  They  were  exempted  from 
gramed "v  the  P"t)lic  scrvicc.  (2)  They  were  also  exempted 
Government  to  froui  taxation,  at  least  the  burdensome  forms 
t  e  lurci.  of  it.  (3)  They  were  endowed  with  the  power 
78 


THE  HIERARCHY  AND  POLITY.  yo 

of  deciding  disputes  before  them,  and  their  decisions 
were  regarded  as  final.  Besides  these  privileges  granted 
to  the  clergy,  as  such,  the  Church  was  given  the  right  of 
asylum.  According  to  this  provision  the  voice  of  the 
Church,  when  interceding  for  mercy  for  the  guilty,  was 
heeded.  The  Church  was  put  in  position  to  protect  them 
from  the  severity  of  the  law  when  they  fled  to  her  for 
refuge. 

The  civil  relations  into  which  the  Church  came  brought 
into    existence  a  number  of  semi-secular  or  legal  offices. 

These  though  not  regarded'  as  clerical,  were 
New  Offices,      loosely  attached   to  the   ecclesiastical  system 

of  the  age.  Such  were  the  offices  of  (i) 
Occonomi,  or  stewards  of  financial  and  business 
affairs.  These  took  the  place  and  work  of  the  deacons 
of  the  older  Church,  as  the  deacons,  became  mere  assist- 
ants of  the  bishops  ;  (2)  Dcfaisores,  or  legal  advisers  and 
advocates  of  the  Church  and  the  poor  under  its  care  be- 
fore the  courts ;  (3)  A'ofaj-ii,  or  notaries  to  draw  up 
public  documents  and  make  records  in  due  form ;  (4) 
Chartophylakes,  or  keepers  of  public  documents;  and  (5) 
Apocrisiaiii,  or  official  representatives  of  the  Church  in 
the  imperial  court.  To  these  must  be  added  (6)  Para- 
bola ni,  or  visitors  of  the  sick, and  (7)  Copiata;,  those  charged 
with  the  burial  of  the  dead.  These  last  two  classes  were 
useful  during  seasons  of  pestilence,  which  often  visited 
the  large  cities. 

The  clergy,  already  sharply  distinguished  from  the 
laity  in  the  previous  age,  developed  a  character  of  its  own 
Qualifications  during  this  period.  To  this  end  the  contribu- 
for  entering  ting  factors  wcre  a  selective  process  intended 
"^'  to  keep  out  of  the  sacred  service  of  the  Church 
unworthy  candidates.  Certain  qualifications  were  in- 
sisted on  before  ordination.  Of  these  some  had  reference 
merely  to  the  previous  station  in  life  or  occupation  of  the 
candidate.  Actors,  dancers  and  others  engaged  in  simi- 
lar emploj'ments  were  barred  out  by  their  occupation 
from  entering  the  clergy.  So  were  military  men.  Slaves 
also,  as  long  as  they  were  in  the  condition  of  slavery,  could 
not  be  ordained,  not  on   account   of  a  contempt  for  the 


So  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

condition  of  slavery,  but  on  the  principle  that  the  servant 
of  the  Lord  must  be  independent  of  all  others.  Hence, 
slaves  when  emancipated  were  freely  ordained.  Neophytes 
(those  who  had  joined  the  church  very  recently)  were 
also  excluded,  as  were  also  very  young  persons.  The  age 
of  thirty  was  fixed  as  the  limit  for  presbyters,  but  the  rule 
was  not  strictly  adhered  to.  Another  ground  of  selection 
was  an  educational  qualification.  Some  knowledge  of 
Christian  truth,  as  found  in  the  Scriptures,  was  always  re- 
quired of  the  Christian  ministry.  At  the  period  under 
consideration  the  standard  was  raised  by  the  entrance  into 
the  clergy  of  men  well  versed  in  the  ancient  Greek  and 
Latin  classics  (Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Basil 
and  others).  The  schools  of  the  Church  at  Alexandria, 
and  Caisarea,  now  increased  in  number  by  the  addition  of 
those  at  Antioch,  Edessa  and  Nisibis,  exerted  a  strong 
influence  in  this  direction.  After  entrance  on  the  clerical 
office,  ascetic  requirements  helped  to  differentiate  the 
character  of  the  clergy.  Celibacy  was  insisted  on  in  the 
West.  In  the  East,  though  commended,  it  was  not  re- 
quired. 

The  synodal  system  was  perfected  during  this  age  by 
the  convocation  of  ecumenical  councils.  These  were 
calculated  to  represent  the  whole  Church  and  deal  with 
questions  of  vital  importance.  They  were  convened  by 
the  emperors.  They  formulated  articles  of  faith  and  drew 
up  rules  for  the  regulation  of  discipline.  Five  ecumenical 
councils  were  held  during  this  period  :  those 
Cound^''^  at  NicEEa  (A.  D.  325),  at  Constantinople  (A.  D. 
381),  at  Ephesus  (A.  D.  431),  at  Chalcedon 
(A.  D.  451),  and  Constantinople  (A.  D,  553). 

The  patriarchates  which  were  developed,  but  somewhat 
dimly  defined,  before  the  dawn  of  this  epoch,  were  dis- 
tinctly outlined  and  formally  recognized  in 
Patriarchates,  ^j-jg  ecumcnical  councils.  Their  boundaries 
were  fixed  and  the  rights  of  precedence  of 
their  incumbents  discussed  and  adopted.  In  Egypt  the 
see  of  Alexandria  was  easily  declared  the  chief  and 
supreme  seat  of  authority.  Antioch  retained  its  central 
and  dominant  position  in  Asia,  but  was  limited  on   one 


THE  HIERARCHY  AND  POLITY.  8i 

side  by  the  recognition  of  Jerusalem  as  an  independent 
patriarchate  after  some  struggle.  On  the  other  side  the 
see  of  Constantinople  grew  in  importance  and  became 
the  center  not  only  of  the  Church  in  Thrace,  but  also  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  even  in  the  dioceses  of  Pontus  and 
Cappadocia.  The  effect  of  this  was  not  simply  to  reduce 
the  patriarchate  of  Antioch  but  to  raise  that  of  Constan- 
tinople so  far,  that  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (A.  D.  451) 
it  was  recognized  as  equal  in  rank  with  the  see  of  Rome. 
The  title  "patriarch"  was  now  fixed  upon  to  designate 
the  bishops  of  these  churches.  They  were  empowered 
to  ordain  the  metropolitans  and  simple  bishops  in  their 
respective  territories.  An  occasional  exception  to  the 
rule  of  subordination  to  the  patriarchs  was  made,  as  in 
favor  of  the  bishop  (metropolitan)  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus, 
who  claimed  and  maintained  his  independence  at  the 
council  of  Ephesus  (A.  D.  431).  Such  were  called  autoce- 
phali  (self-governing). 

The  bishop  of  Rome  was  in  the  East  numbered  and 
ranked  among  the  patriarchs,  but  the  name  did  not  pre- 
vail in  the  West.  Neither  were  the  bishops 
Claims  of  Rome. of  Rome  Satisfied  with  a  position  which  was 
geographically  analogous  to  the  patriarchates 
of  the  East.  They  early  put  forth  the  claim  that  their 
see  was  of  apostolic  origin.  A  little  later  this  was  modi- 
fied to  the  effect  that  all  the  churches  in  the  West  were  the 
offshoots  of  the  only  western  apostolic  see,—  that  of  Rome. 
The  antiquity  and  apostolicity  of  the  Roman  Church  was 
not  disputed  in  the  East.  On  the  contrary,  deference 
was  paid  to  the  Roman  bishops,  and  the  weight  of  their 
prestige  was  sought  after  by  parties,  in  questions  discussed 
in  the  East  only.  Their  position  in  ecumenical  councils 
was  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  any  other  bishops. 
But  their  right  to  dictate  or  interfere  was  denied  when 
Julius  (A.  D.  337-352)  proposed  to  bring  the  question  of 
the  deposition  of  Athanasius  before  a  Roman  council, 
though  an  eastern  council  had  decided  it.  The  eastern 
bishops  assembled  at  Antioch  in  council  declared  that  he 
had  no  right  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  Eastern 
Church.  But  the  claim  to  primacy,  instead  of  being 
6 


g2  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

abandoned  by  such  resistance,  was  reasserted  more  and 
more  clearly  by  the  successors  of  Julius.  Most  impor- 
tant for  his  forcible  presentation  of  this  claim  was  Leo 
(A.  D.  440-461.) 

Leo  insisted  on  the  rights  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  as 
successors  of  St.  Peter.     To  this  end  he  called  attention 
to  those    facts  in  the    Gospel    history  which 
Leo  I.  show  the  apostle  as  the  spokesman  and  rep- 

resentative of  the  other  apostles  in  their  re- 
lations with  Christ  (Matt.  xvi.  18).  But  more  important 
than  the  arguments  adduced  by  him  was  the  ability  and 
dignity  with  which  he  managed  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in 
furthering  the  idea  of  the  supremacy  of  his  office.  When 
the  Western  empire  fell  before  the  invading  Goths  the 
Church  was  left  the  sole  heir  to  many  of  the  functions 
exercised  by  it.  Thus  another  impulse  was  given  to  the 
growth  of  the  papal  idea.  Resistance  to  this  idea  was 
offered  again  in  the  East,  and  now  also  in  the  regions 
most  immediately  affected  by  it — Gaul  and  Britain.  It 
received  a  temporary  check  during  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
and  its  further  growth  was  no  doubt  delayed. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THEOLOGY  AND   CONTROVERSIES. 

The  Nicene  and  post-Nicene  ages  are  pre-eminently  the 
period  of  llieological  controversy.  The  discussions  re- 
garding the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  with  which 
Vilws.'"''^  '"^  the  previous  period  closed  had  led  to  no 
definite  conclusion.  Sabellius  exercised  con- 
siderable influence  in  Egypt  and  especially  at  Alexandria. 
Arius,  a  presbyter  in  that  city  and  a  man  of  keen  mind, 
educated  at  Antioch,  and  thus  accustomed  to  look  at 
matters  from  a  point  of  view  differing  slightly  from  that 
of  the  Alexandrians,  propounded  a  view  intended  by  him 
to  meet  and  oppose  the  Sabellian  influence.  This  view 
consisted  in  the  teaching  that  Christ  was  not  the  off- 
spring of  the  divine  nature,  but  of  the  divine  will.  He 
was  created  before  the  beginning  of  time.  "  There  was 
once  when  he  was  not."  Through  him  God  made  the 
world.  He  was  sinless,  but  not  by  nature.  Rather  by 
his  own  act  or  conduct  preserving  himself  from  sin. 
Against  this  view  the  bishop  of  Alexandria  declared  him- 
self, first  individually,  and  then  through  a  synod  (A.  D. 
320).     Arius  and  his  partisans  were  excommunicated. 

This  did  not,  however,  end  the  debate.  Constantine  at- 
tempted to  reconcile  the  parties,  but  failing,  convened  the 
first  ecumenical  council  at  Nicea  (A.  D.  325). 
Nicea,A?D.  325.  This  was  the  largest  assembly  of  bishops  held 
up  to  this  time.  It  represented  all  the  sec- 
tions of  the  Church.  The  bishop  of  Rome,  unable  to  at- 
tend in  person  on  account  of  advanced  age,  sent  two  pres- 
byters as  deputies.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  bishops  were 
reported  as  attending  the  meeting  of  the  synod,  besides 
presbyters  and  deacons  and  a  large  number  of  laymen. 
The  emperor  opened  the  sessions,  but  gave    over  the 

83 


84  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

further  conduct  of  the  meetings  to  the  "presidents." 
These  were  bishops  among  whom  Hosius  of  Cordova  is 
named.  The  discussions  were  led  by  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  a  partisan  of  Arius,  Eusebius  of  Ceesarea,  a 
mediating  party,  and  Athanasius  for  the  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria. The  result  of  the  deliberations  was  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Nicene  Creed  containing  the  teaching  that 
the  Son  is  "  consubstantial  "  with  the  Father.  Arius  and 
those  who  would  not  subscribe  to  this  creed  were  anathe- 
matized. 

But  this  decision  was  not  a  final  settlement  of  the 
controversy.  An  effort  to  reach  a  compromise  was  im- 
mediately set  on  foot.  The  advocates  of  this 
ControvMsy.  movement  have  been  called  "  Semi-Arians." 
Their  object  was  to  have  the  Nicene  Creed  so 
modified  as  to  omit  the  word  "  consubstantial  "  (homo- 
ousios)  from  it.  They  were  led  by  Eusebius  of  Nicome- 
dia. The  emperor  who  ratified  the  decisions  of  the  coun- 
cil was  won  over  to  this  party  and  alienated  from  Athana- 
sius, who  had  meanwhile  succeeded  Alexander  as  bishop 
of  Alexandria.  At  a  synod  held  in  Tyre  (A.  D.  335), 
Athanasius  was  deposed  and  exiled.  The  emperor  re- 
solved to  reinstate  Arius  in  his  office,  and  was  only  pre- 
vented from  so  doing  by  the  sudden  death  of  Arius 
(A.  D.  336).  Constantine  himself  died  the  next  year(A.  D. 
337).  Constantius,  who  succeeded  him,  openly  espoused 
Arianisra.  Athanasius  took  refuge  in  Rome.  Here  his 
views  were  approved  and  the  right  to  commune  conceded 
him.  Marcellus  also,  an  extreme  partisan  of  the  "  homo- 
ousian  "  doctrine,  though  condemned  at  Constantinople 
(A.  D.  336),  was  recognized  at  Rome  by  a  synod  (A.  D. 
341).  To  heal  the  breach  thus  made  between  the  East 
and  West,  another  council  was  called  at  Sardica  in  Bul- 
garia, (A.  D.  344),  but  failed  to  accomplish  anything. 
Still  another  synod  held  at  Antioch  (A.  D.  345)  formu- 
lated the  Semi-Arian  view  in  a  creed  called  "  the  Long- 
drawn-out"  (Macrostich),  and  condemned  Photinus  and 
the  Photinians  for  holding  the  views  of  Marcellus.  Dur- 
ing a  temporary  lull  in  the  controversy  Athanasius  was 
recalled  (A.  D.  346),  but  was  exiled  again    (A,  D.  356). 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES.  gt 

Meanwhile  the  effort  to  compel  the  Western  Church  to 
adopt  Semi-Arianism  was  made  in  three  successive 
synods  at  Sirmium,  Aries  and  Milan. 

Thus   far    the    Arians    and    Semi-Arians    had    worked 
together.     As    soon   as    they   obtained  the    victory   over 

the  Athanasians  they  separated.     Aetius  and 
HoZfousfans:'  Eunomius     reasserted     pure    Arianism    in    a 

balder  form  than  before.  They  used  the  ex- 
pression that  Christ  was  of  a  "  dissimilar "  substance 
from  the  Father,  hence  they  were  called  Anomoeans. 
(From  d-M'>iJ.owi — dissimilar).  The  Semi-Arians  from  the  as- 
sertion that  the  Son  was  of  "  similar  "  substance  with  the 
Father  were  called  Homoiousians  (tV"-'"i\  similar). 
Again  efforts  were  put  forth  to  bring  about  an  understand- 
ing on  the  subject.  Synods  were  held  annually  at  differ- 
ent places  in  the  empire  between  A.  D.  356' and  360. 
When,  however,  Julian  ascended  the  imperial  throne,  the 
discussion  was  thrust  aside  for  a  time.  Athanasius  re- 
turned once  more  to  his  see  in  Alexandria.  Jovian,  who 
succeeded  Julian,  was  an  adherent  of  the  Nicene  Creed. 
His  influence  during  a  brief  reign  was  mildly  exerted  in 
favor  of  the  views  expressed  in  that  creed.  At  his  death 
Valentinian  I.  (A.  D.  36/1-375)  was  raised  to  the  throne, 
and  associated  with  himself  Valens  (A.  D.  364-378)33 
co-regent  in  the  East  while  he  himself  reigned  in  the 
West.  Valens  was  an  Arian,  and  showed  himself  a  vio- 
lent partisan  as  a  ruler.  Valentinian  favored  the  Nicene 
view  which  was  generally  accepted  in  the  West.  While, 
therefore,  the  controversy  was  practically  closed  in  the 
dominions  of  Valentinian,  it  was  carried  on  vigorously 
for  the  next  seventeen  years  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
empire. 

Meantime,  in  the  West,  the  Church  had  steadily  stood 
by  the  creed  agreed  to  at  Nicaja.     Auxentius,  the  bishop 

of  Milan,  did  indeed  espouse  the  cause  of  the 
HUa^.^^^"       Semi-Arians,    but    he   found    little    sympathy 

among  the  bishops  of  Italy;  and,  when  he 
died,  in  A.  D.  374,  the  eloquent  Ambrose  (A.  D.  340- 
397)  was  Hfted  into  his  place  by  popular  acclamation, 
and  did  much  to  hold  the  western  branch  of  the  Church 


86  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

on  the  Nicene  side  of  the  controversy.  Another  great 
theologian  of  the  West,  during  the  same  period,  was 
Hilary  (A.  D.  320-366),  bishop  of  Poitiers,  who  also  ex- 
erted, through  a  work  On  the  Trinity,  a  powerful  influence 
against  Arianism,  sutTering  imprisonment  for  his  views. 

Two  new  factors  made  their  appearance  during  the 
reign  of  Valens.  The  first  of  these  was  the  rise  of  the 
question  as  to  the  place  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
Riacedonian-  ^j^^  Trinity.  Athanasius  induced  a  synod  at 
Alexandria  (A.  D.  362)  to  require  the  repudia- 
tion of  the  teaching  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  a  creature. 
Certain  Semi-Arians,  under  the  lead  of  Macedonius 
(whom  Constantius  had  made  bishop  of  Constantinople), 
persisted  in  holding  the  view  thus  condemned,  and  were 
called  Macedonians,  or,  from  the  nature  of  their  error, 
Pneumatoniachi  ("  Opponents  of  the  Spirit  "). 

The  second  of  the  factors  above  alluded  to  was  the 
entrance  upon  the  scene  of  three  men,  who,  by  the  weight 
of  their  united  influence,  contributed  towards 
The  Cappado-    \\^q  final  predominance  of  the  Nicene  view  in 
ans.  the  East.     These  were  the  so-called  Cappado- 

cians — Basil  of  Cffisarea,  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
zus,  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  Basil  (the  Great,  A.  D.  330- 
379)  was  born  of  Christian  parents  and  enjo3'ed  the  bene- 
fit of  the  teacliings  of  good  classical  scholars.  He  gener- 
ally followed  Origcn  in  theology,  and  at  first  inclined  to 
the  Homoiousian  (Semi-Arian)  side,  but  later  threw  his 
learning  and  prestige  to  the  side  of  the  Homoousians. 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (A.  D.  325-389)  was  the  son  of  a 
bishop,  and  companion  in  study  of  Basil.  He  was  early 
ordained  a  presbyter  by  his  father,  and  a  little  later  be- 
came his  father's  assistant.  He  did  not,  however,  con- 
sent to  succeed  his  father  on  the  latter's  death,  but  went 
to  Constantinople,  and  by  his  eloquence  and  depth  of 
thought  furthered  the  cause  of  the  Nicene  faith.  Greg- 
ory of  Nyssa  (A.  D.  330-395),  a  brother  of  Basil,  was 
made  bishop  of  Nyssa  in  Cappadocia,  but  drifted  into 
Constantinople  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
?Mf^°''^"^"'  great  discussion.  He  was  the  most  philo- 
sophical    of    the    three    Cappadocians,    and 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES.  87 

appreciated  and  yielded  to  tlie  influence  of  Origen,  al- 
though, as  already  noted,  he  adhered  to  the  Nicene 
declaration  of  faith. 

Under  the  influence  of  these  men,  and  others  of  lesser 
power,  the  Senii-Arian  party  was  little  by  little  drawn 
towards  the  Nicene  position.  Theodosius  (A.  D.  379- 
395),  soon  after  his  accession,  called  a  second  ecumenical 
council,  to  give  the  question  before  the  Church  a  final 
consideration.  This  council  met  at  Constantinople  in 
A.  D.  381,  and,  in  addition  to  the  definition  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  already  made  at  Nicaea, 
pronounced  on  the  essential  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  thus  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  clearly  set  forth. 

The  Arian  controversy  made  it  very  clear  that  the  com- 
prehensive tendency  of  Origen's  systematic  theologizing 
was  a  source  of  misunderstanding  and  dan- 
Coiftroversy.  S^^-  Both  sides  in  the  controversy  quoted 
this  great  theologian  ;  and  this  because  he 
had  succeeded  in  so  expressing  his  views  as  to  include,  in 
his  comprehensive  mode  of  thought,  the  truth  represented 
by  each.  There  arose,  however,  a  certain  type  of  think- 
ers who  were  unable  to  appreciate  this  phase  of  his 
thought.  Between  these,  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  who 
admired  Origen  and  followed  him  implicitly  on  the  other, 
it  was  inevitable  there  should  come  a  conflict. 

The  first  phase  of  this  conflict  was  developed  in  Pales- 
tine towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  There  a  group 
of  Christian  thinkers  took  up  the  writings  of  Origen  as  a 
guide  in  their  studies.  The  foremost  of  these  were  John, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  Rufinus  of  Aquileia,  and  Jerome, 
one  of  the  most  prolific  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of  the 
Church.  The  devotion  of  these  men  to  Origen  drew 
down  on  them  the  displeasure  and  opposition  of  Epipha- 
nius,  bishop  of  Constantia  (Salamis),  in  Cyprus  (A.  D.315- 
403).  The  reputation  of  Epiphanius  for  orthodoxy,  and 
the  consequent  fear  of  being  charged  with  heresy  on  the 
ground  of  Epiphanius'  opposition,  led  Jerome  to  break 
away  from  his  companions  and  fellow-admirers  of  Origen 
and  attack  Origen  as  holding  a  number  of  heretical  views. 
This  naturally  brought  forth  answers  and  defences  from 


88  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  other  side.  The  conflict  grew  especially  bitter  be- 
tween Jerome  and  Rufinus,  but  led  to  no  ecclesiastical 
action. 

At  the  same  time,  but  upon  occasion  of  a  different  set 
of  circumstances   a    second   conflict    involving    Origen's 

views,  if  not  directly  growing  out  of  them,  ap- 
S^To''sto,r"^  peared  at  Alexandria.      Here   Theophilus,  the 

bishop,  had  declared  himself  distinctly  against 
the  anthropomorphic  views  held  by  some.  He  thus 
seemed  to  give  his  adherence  to  the  spiritualistic  theories 
of  Origen.  On  being  attacked  by  certain  fanatical  monks 
from  the  Scetic  desert,  he  changed  his  attitude  and 
became  a  vehement  opponent  of  Origenism.  In  this 
way,  however,  he  was  brought  into  conflict  with  the  monks 
of  the  Nitrian  desert,  who  were  Origenists.  With  these 
he  carried  on  the  controversy.  As  they  betook  them- 
selves to  Constantinople  to  the  protection  of  John  Chry- 
sostom,  the  bishop  of  that  city,  Theophilus  entered  into 
a  dispute  with  Chrysostom.  Chrysostom,  however,  was 
not  a  violent  partisan  of  Origenism.  The  controversy 
was,  therefore,  reduced  to  a  personal  one  between  these 
bishops.  Chrysostom  (The  Golden  Mouth,  so  called 
from  his  great  eloquence,  A.  D.  347-407),  was  a  native  of 
Antioch  and  devoted  himself  in  early  life  to  monastic 
habit.  But  being  unable  to  endure  the  severities  of  this 
form  of  life  he  returned  to  his  home  and  was  ordained 
presbyter.  His  natural  gifts  raised  him  to  the  bishopric 
of  Constantinople.  In  the  conflict  with  Theophilus, 
Chrysostom  had  to  contend  against  the  ill-will  of  the 
empress,  who  had  been  offended  by  his  plain  speech 
against  the  laxity  in  morals  tolerated  by  her  at  court'.  A 
council  held  at  an  imperial  estate  near  Chalcedon,  called 
"  The  Oak,"  and  presided  over  by  Theophilus,  condemned 
and  deposed  Chrysostom.  He  was  banished  from  Con- 
stantinople, but  recalled  in  consequence  of  a  tumult 
caused  by  this  measure.  The  enmity  of  the  empress, 
however,  was  implacable.  Chrysostom  was  condemned 
a  second  time  on  a  technical  charge  and  banished  to  a 
more  distant  place.  This  he  never  reached,  succumb- 
ing to  the  hardships  of  the  way.     As  an  incident  of  this 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES.  89 

conflict,  a  council  convened  by  Epiphanius  at  Cyprus  con- 
demned Origen's  views  (A.  D.  401). 

The  question  of  the  essential  unity  of  the  Son  with  the 
Father  from   eternity  once  settled,  discussions   arose  as 

to  the  relation  of  the  divine  and  human  ele- 
Confro!e«'es.    Hients  in  the   Incarnate  Son.     How  were  the 

Godhead  and  human  nature  combined  in  the 
person  of  Christ?     The  first  attempt  at   the  solution  of 

this  problem  was  made  by  Apollinaris  (390). 
Apollinaris.       This    theologian  was  trained  in   the   Platonic 

philosophy,  and  as  he  approached  the  difficult 
question  of  the  person  of  Christ,  resorted  to  the  Platonic 
psychology  for  light.  Here  he  found  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  animal  or  irrational  soul  and  the  spirit.  He 
therefore  asserted  that  in  the  Incarnation  the  eternal 
Logos  took  upon  himself  a  true  human  body  and  a 
genuine  animal  soul,  but  no  true  human  spirit.  The 
place  of  this  in  the  ordinary  human  nature  was  taken  by 
the  Logos  himself,  who  is  a  true  spirit.  This  doctrine 
was  at  once  recognized  as  inconsistent  with  a  belief  in 
the  true  humanity  of  the  Lord,  and  some  of  the  foremost 
thinkers  of  the  Church  appeared  in  opposition  to  it. 
Among  these  were  Athanasius,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  especially  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia. 
The  doctrine  was  anathematized  at  the  council  of  Con- 
stantinople (A.  D.  381"). 

The  opposition  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  to  Apollin- 
arianism   was   simply   one  of  a  group   of   characteristics 

developed  by  the  school  of  thinkers  which 
Mo^p°su"sda.       centered   about  Antioch.     Theodore    himself 

was  the  most  prominent  representative  of  this 
school.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  student  and  com- 
mentator of  the  Bible,  and  was  made  bishop  of  Mopsues- 
tia (A.  D.  393-428).  He  and  his  followers  were  inclined  to 
insist  on  the  integrity  of  the  human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ. 
This  tendency  was  slightly  at  variance  with  the  tendency 
of  the  Alexandrian  school,  which  emphasized  the  over- 
shadowing power  of  the  divine  nature. 

The  Antiochene  tendency,  pressed  to  an  extreme,  issued 
in  the  Nestorian  heresy.     Nestorius,  who  gives  the  name 


90 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


to  this  form  of  belief,  was  educated  at  Antioch  and  be- 
came patriarch  of  Constantinople  (A.  D.  428- 
Nestorianism.  435).  He  was  not,  howevcr,  the  originator 
of  the  heresy.  This  arose  from  the  denuncia- 
tion from  the  pulpit  by  Anastasius,  a  presbyter  under 
Nestorius,  of  the  phrase  "  Mother  of  God  "  as  applied  to 
Mary.  Anastasius  preached  against  the  use  of  tliis  phrase, 
on  the  ground  that  Mary  was  not  and  could  not  be  said 
to  be  the  mother  of  the  divine  nature  in  Christ,  but  only 
of  the  human.  He  was  attacked  for  this  by  the  monks 
and  the  people  and  defended  by  the  bishop.  In  the 
course  of  the  discussion  the  view  was  elaborated  that 
there  are  in  Christ  two  distinct  persons,  the  divine  and 
the  human.  Meanwhile  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
appeared  as  the  champion  of  the  opposition  to  Nestorius, 
actuated  in  this  course,  perhaps,  by  personal  ambition 
and  jealousy.  An  ecumenical  council  was  called  to  meet 
at  Ephesus  in  A.  D.  431.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  eastern 
bishops,  who  were  known  to  favor  Nestorius,  and  in  the 
absence  of  Nestorius  himself,  as  he  refused  to  appear, 
though  summoned,  Cyril  organized  the  council  and  secured 
the  condemnation  of  Nestorius.  A  verdict  thus  obtained 
did  not  pass  unchallenged,  but  after  a  few  years  of  heated 
debate  and  a  change  of  face  at  court  from  the  side  of 
Nestorius  to  that  of  Cyril,  the  decision  was  acknowledged 
as  valid,  Nestorius  was  deposed  and  banished,  dying  in 
exile  (A.  D.  439),  and  the  Alexandrian  view  obtained  the 
upper  hand. 

The  settlement  of  the  question  thus  reached  did  not, 
however,  prove  a  permanent  one.  Cyril  was  succeeded 
in  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria  by  Dios- 
Eutychianism.  corus,  a  man  of  intolerant  and  violent  temper. 
Soon  afterwards  Eutyches,  the  aged  head  of  a 
monastery  in  Constantinople,  propounded  the  view  that 
after  the  incarnation  there  were  not  two  natures  in  Christ, 
but  one.  The  human  nature  was  so  thoroughly  absorbed 
in  the  divine  that  even  the  corporeal  element  in  it  was 
different  from  the  ordinary  human  body.  This  view  was 
opposed  and  soon  condemned  by  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople,  Flavian,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  "  resi- 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES.  9 1 

dent  synod."  *  Dioscorus  now  came  to  the  rescue  of 
Eutyches,  who  also  had  the  support  of  the  imperial  court. 
The  matter  was  again  referred  to  a  council,  and  Eutychian- 
ism  was  formally  rejected  (A.  D.  449).  But  the  emperor, 
not  satisfied  with  this  result,  summoned  an  ecumenical 
council  to  meet  at  Ephesus  the  same  year.  Dioscorus 
assumed  the  control  of  this  council,  and  the  violence 
exhibited  in  it  rightly  gave  it  the  name  of  "The  Robber 
Synod."  Flavian  was  so  maltreated  that  he  died  in  con- 
sequence. Other  opponents  of  Eutyches  were  forced  to 
flee  for  their  lives. 

Meantime    Monophysitism    became    generalized.     Not 
only  the  absorption  of  the  human  nature  of  Christ  by  the 
divine,  but  also   the   mixture  of   the  two  in  a 
tism!°^  ^^'"       third  and  a  new  theanthropic  nature  was  advo- 
cated.    The  ascendency  of   these  views  was 
not,  however,  destined  to  last  long.     With  the  death  of  the 
emperor,  Theodosius  II.,  who   had   befriended  and  pro- 
tected Eutyches  and  his  doctrine,  a  radical  change  came. 
Leo  I.,  bishop  of  Rome,  had  outlined  in  a  letter  to  Flavian 
the  position  to  be  taken  by  the  Church.     An  ecumenical 
council  was  called   and  met  at  Chalcedon   in 
chakedo^i.        A.  D,  45 1.      This  council  gavc  the  final  form  to 
the  definition  of  the  relations  of  the  human  and 
divine   elements  in  Christ.      It  declared  for  the  true  divin- 
ity and  the  perfect  humanity  of  the  Lord.     These  coexist 
in  his  one  person  without  intermixture,  without  transmu- 
tation, without  division,  and  without  separation.! 

But,  though  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ  was 
clearly  set  forth,  political  reasons  interfered  with  the 
reunion  of  the  parties  to  the  controversy. 
Monophyskism.  Mouophysitism  had  gained  many  adherents 
in  Alexandria,  Egypt  and  Palestine.  A  re- 
bellion broke  out  in  Palestine,  led  by  a  monk  named 
Theodosius.  Riots  and  disturbances  followed  in  Alex- 
andria, The  patriarch  of  that  city,  Proterius,  appointed 
after  the  deposition  of  Dioscorus,  was  assassinated,  and 

*  I,bvo6o^  evSr/fiovaa,  consisting  of  prelates  residing  in  the  city. 

t  The  terms  used  at  Chalcedon  were  aavyxvTug,  arpeivTug,  adiai- 


g2  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

a  Monophysite  elected  in  his  place  in  the  person  of  Timo- 
theus  yElurus.  In  Antioch,  Peter  the  Fuller,  also  a 
Monophysite,  was  elected  patriarch.  The  emperor,  Leo  I. 
(A.  D.  457-474),  maintained  the  orthodox  side  at  Constan- 
tinople. Upon  his  death,  his  son-in-law,  Zeno,  succeeded 
him,  but  was  displaced  by  a  usurper,  Basiliscus  (A.  D.  475- 
477).  This  emperor  was  an  ardent  Monophysite  and  put 
forth  a  document  condemning  the  creed  of  Chalcedon  and 
the  letter  of  Leo  which  had  foreshadowed  it.  He  was  not, 
however,  allowed  to  remain  in  power  very  long.  Zeno 
was  reinstated,  and  the  adherents  of  the  Chalcedonian 
creed  regained  power.  Zeno  now  put  forth  a  new  pro- 
posal for  reunion,  called  The  Henoticon  (A.  D.  482).  This 
was  meant  to  be  a  compromise.  It  avoided  the  terms 
used  in  the  controversy  and  was  non-committal  on  the 
Chalcedon  creed,  but  failed  to  reunite  the  parties.  It  was, 
however,  accepted  by  many  Monophysites,  creating  a 
disruption  in  their  ranks.  Meanwhile  the  side  of  the 
Dyophysites  in  the  East  was  strengthened  by  the  formal 
rejection  of  the  Hmoticofi  at  Rome  by  Felix  III.,  an  act 
which  was  followed  by  a  temporary  schism  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  branches  of  the  Church,  lasting  until 
A.  D.  519.  At  that  date  the  patriarch  John  of  Constan- 
tinople was  induced  by  Justinian,  the  nephew  of  the 
reigning  emperor,  Justin,  to  condemn  the  Henoticon,  and 
communion  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Church  was 
restored  by  Hormisdas. 

The  last  stage  of  the  Monophysite  controversy  was 
entered  into  by  the  accession  to  the  imperial  throne  of  Jus- 
tinian (A.  D.  527-565).  This  emperor  made  it  his  life-task 
to  re-establish  the  unity  of  the  empire  around  the  Creed 
of  Chalcedon.  He  first  issued  a  decree  sanctioning  the 
use  of  the  expression  "  God  who  hast  suffered  for  us," 
introduced  into  the  liturgy,  first  at  Antioch  by  Peter  the 
Fuller,  and  later  adopted" at  Constantinople.  This  was  a 
concession  to  the  Monophysites.  He  was  next  induced 
by  the  empress  Theodora,  who  was  a  Monophysite  at 
heart,  to  sum  up  in  three  so-called  Chapters,  the  works 
of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the  Letters  of  Theodoret 
against  Cyril  and  the  Letter  of  Ibas  to  Mares,  and  declare 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES.  93 

them  heretical.  He  asked  the  bishops  to  concur  in  this 
verdict.  This  was  readily  done  by  the  Eastern  bishops  ; 
but  those  of  the  West  would  not  agree.  Vigilius  of  Rome 
had  indeed  secretly  promised  the  empress  to  do  so  too, 
but  broke  his  word  on  finding  that  he  must  meet  a  storm 
of  opposition  in  the  West.  The  emperor,  however, 
brought  him  to  Constantinople  and  compelled  him  to 
draw  a  document  entitled ///(^//V^?///;//,  in  which  the  Three 
Chapters  were  condemned.  Finally  the  emperor  con- 
vened the  Fifth  Ecumenical  Council  at  Con- 
Fifth  Ecu-  stantinople  in  A.  D.  ^^x.  Here  the  Three 
cii.  Chapters  were  condemned  as  well  as  Urigen  and 

his  views.  Vigilius,  still  loath  to  go  back  to 
Rome  as  a  partisan  to  this  condemnation,  issued  his 
Constitutu7n,  attempting  to  occupy  middle  ground  by  con- 
demning certain  views  in  the  Three  Chapters  but  not  the 
men.  He  was  compelled,  however,  soon  afterwards,  to 
subscribe  to  the  finding  of  the  council. 

But  though  these  proceedings  restored  peace  and  unity 
to  the  Church  and  empire,  they  did  not  destroy  the 
Monophysite  heresy.  This  was  rather  broken 
Jacobites.  into  smaller  factions  by  the  appearance  in  it  of 
varieties  of  shades  of  opinion.  The  main 
body  of  those  who  dwelt  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  found 
a  leader  of  energy  in  Jacob  Baradasus  (A.  D.  541-578), 
from  whom  they  derive  the  name  of  Jacobites.  They 
were  persecuted  and  increasingly  isolated  in  churches  of 
their  own  in  Abyssinia  and  Syria. 

While  Alexandrian  speculation  and  Antiochene  study 
led  to  controversies  above  noticed,  Athenian  Neo-Platon- 
ism  also  found  its  way  into  the  Christian  world  under  the 
guise  of  writings  on  the  Celestial  Hierarchy,  on  Eccle- 
siastical Hierarchy,  on  the  Divine  Nasties  and  on  Mystical 
Theology.  These  writings  were  put  forth  in  the  name  of 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  but  their  author  evidently 
lived  about  A.  D,  500.  He  taught  that  God  is  an  in- 
scrutable Being  who  condescends  to  develop  and  mani- 
fest himself  in  a  series  of  heavenly  beings,  ranged  in 
ranks  as  a  hierarchy.  At  the  head  of  this  hierarchy 
stands    the    Holy  Trinity.     The  earthly  hierarchy  is  sim- 


94 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


ply  patterned  after  its  heavenly  prototype,  and  through 
the  ordinances  of  the  Church,  especially  the  sacraments 
(called  by  their  author  "  mysteries  "  ),  secures  for  men  the 
opening  of  the  way  to  God. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  pseudo-Dionysius  flour- 
ished the  last  of  the  writers  in  classic  Latin.  This  was 
Severinus  Boethius  (A.D.  480-525).  Being  suspected  of 
conspiracy,  this  philosophic  thinker  was  seized  by  com- 
mand of  the  emperor  Theodoric  and  cast  into  prison,  and 
later  put  to  death.  During  the  period  of  his  incarcera- 
tion he  composed  his  treatise  On  the  Consolation  of  Philo- 
sophy, a  work  conceived  and  executed  in  the  spirit  of 
ancient  stoicism,  but  mistaken  at  the  time  as  the  result 
of  profound  Christian  thought. 

While  the  East  was  occupied  with  the  controversies 
relating  to  the  Trinity  and  to  the  person  of  Christ,  the 

West  became  the  scene  of  a  controversy  on  a 
Augustine.         different  subject,  viz.,  the  Christian  doctrine  of 

Grace  and  its  relation  to  human  freedom  and 
ability.  The  thinker  with  whom  the  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion begins  is  also  undoubtedly  the  greatest  thinker  of  the 
Western  branch  of  the  Church.  Augustine  (Aurelius 
Augustinus,  A.  D.  354-430)  was  born  in  the  North  African 
town  of  Tagaste.  His  mother,  Monica,  was  a  devout 
Christian,  who  made  the  profoundest  religious  impression 
on  his  mind  in  early  youth.  He  drifted  away  from  these 
ideals,  however,  while  fitting  himself  for  the  profession  of 
rhetorician  at  Carthage.  At  the  same  time  he  acquired 
the  desire  for  a  deeper  insight  into  truth  through  philos- 
ophy. To  satisfy  this  desire,  he  joined  himself  for  a  time 
to  the  Manich^ans,  being  admitted  into  this  sect  to  the 
degree  of  a  hearer.  But  failing  to  find  the  satisfaction  of 
his  spiritual  thirst  here,  he  resorted  to  Neo-Platonism. 
Still  failing  of  satisfaction,  he  turned  to  the  Scriptures, 
already  familiar  to  him  to  a  certain  extent,  and  was  led  to 
the  inner  experience  of  the  power  of  God's  grace,  which 
thenceforth  became  to  him  the  center  of  his  thought  and 
life.  He  was  baptized  in  A.  D.  387  by  Ambrose  of  Milan, 
in  whose  parish  he  had  meantime  t  iken  his  abode. 
Shortly  after  this  he  returned  to  Africa  and  reluctantly 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES.  95 

submitted  to  ordination  as  presbyter  in  the  town  of 
Hippo  (A.  D.  392).  In  A.  D.  395  he  was  elected  bishop 
of  the  place,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  labors  in  the 
service  of  the  Church  at  this  place. 

Augustine  wrote  a  large  number  of  works.  As  the 
most  important  among  these  may  be  named  the  Confes- 
sions and  the  treatise  Dc  Civitate  Dei.  He 
His  Work.  busied  himself  with  a  wide  variety  of  topics, 
and  a  complete  list  of  his  writings  would  show 
him  to  have  been  a  man  of  versatile  genius  and  broad 
scope,  who  took  an  interest  in  all  the  questions  of  his  day. 
As  a  controversialist  his  support  was  sought  after  and 
his  opposition  dreaded.  He  engaged  in  the  study  and 
exposition  of  Scripture  and  wrote  commentaries.  He  took 
up  the  defence  of  the  Christian  faith  against  the  Mani- 
chaeans  and  wrote  against  the  Pelagians  and  Donatists. 

His  system  of  thought,  as  already   intimated,   begins 
with  the  question,  "  How  can  a  sinful  man  take  the  steps 

necessary  to  his  salvation  ?  "     His  answer  was 
His  Theology,   clearly  given,  and  may  be  summed  up  in  the 

proposition  that  the  divine  grace  must  enter 
into  the  heart  and  enable  him  to  do  this.  Augustine's 
Christian  experience  was  supported  at  this  point  by  his 
Platonic  philosophy,  which  looked  upon  God  as  the  real 
ground  and  agent  of  all  things.  Man  was  created  in  the 
image  of  God,  with  freedom,  but  in  the  fall  of  Adam  he 
lost  this  freedom  and  became  utterly  unable  to  do  good. 
The  grace  of  God  finds  no  assistance  or  effective  resist- 
ance in  human  nature  as  it  is  after  the  fall.  It  enters  into 
it  and  breaks  it  away  from  its  attachment  towards  evil, 
frees  it  and  gives  a  new  impulse  towards  God.  Only  after 
this  work  of  grace  is  done  can  man  cooperate  with  the 
Spirit.  But  this  saving  grace  is  given,  not  to  all  individ- 
uals of  the  human  race,  but  to  a  certain  number  whom 
God  in  his  mercy  has  predestined  thereto  from  eternity. 
This  system  met  with  well-defined  opposition  at  the 
hands  of  Pelagius  (A.  D.  370  ?-440  ?),  a  British  monk,  who 

appears  for  the  first  time  at  the  beginning  of 
Pelagianism.      the  fifth  Century  preaching  moral  reform.      He 

was  a  man  of  calm  temperament,  without  any 


96  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

knowledge  of  the  spiritual  struggle  with  sin  through  which 
men  like  Augustine  have  to  pass.  He  appears  to  have 
couched  his  opposition  to  Augustine's  views  in  judicious 
terms,  so  that  it  offended  no  one  at  first.  But  he  gained  a 
disciple  in  Ccelestius  (fl.  A.D.  415),  a  layman,  who  was  less 
prudent.  Coelestius  began  by  denying  the  connection  of 
Adam's  sin  with  the  condition  of  the  race.  He  also  de- 
nied the  remission  of  sin  in  the  baptism  of  infants.  He 
was  accused  and  condemned  at  Carthage  of  holding  these 
and  other  views  consistent  with  these,  before  a  council 
held  in  A.  D.  413. 

Meantime  Pelagius  himself  went  to  Palestine,  and,  on 
being  charged  with  holding  these  views,  admitted  before 
an  assembly  of  presbyters  that  a  sinless  life  was  impossi- 
ble without  the  grace  of  God,  and  was  acquitted  (A.  D.  415). 
He  was  again  acquitted  at  a  synod  held  at  Diospolis  later 
in  the  same  year.  But  his  enemies  in  Africa  were  not  sat- 
isfied with  these  decisions.  In  two  councils  held  at  Car- 
thage and  Mileve  in  A.  D.  416  he  was  condemned.  This 
action  was  then  put  before  Pope  Innocent  of  Rome  for  ap- 
proval, and  was  readily  approved  by  him.  The  pope  also 
excommunicated  both  Pelagius  and  Coelestius.  Pelagius 
made  another  effort  at  securing  vindication  by  address- 
ing a  memorial  to  the  pope.  A  larger  council  at  Car- 
thage, however,  in  A.  D.  418,  condemned  his  system  in 
clearer  terms  and  without  reference  to  what  the  pope 
might  do.  As  the  pope  approved  this  decision  also,  no 
further  complications  arose.  Pelagianism  was  finally 
condemned  at  the  third  ecumenical  council  at  Ephesus  in 
A.  D.  431. 

The  views  of  Pelagius  were  taken  up  and  advocated  with 
more  energy  than  that  exhibited  by  Pelagius  and  more 
prudence  than  that  of  Coelestius,  by  Julian  of 
num^"°  ^^'  Eclanum.  This  bishop  led  the  minority,  who 
protested  against  the  condemnation  of  Pelagius, 
and  entered  on  an  animated  controversy  with  the  great 
Augustine  himself,  charging  him  with  Manichcean  tenden- 
cies. But  he  was  unable  to  restore  the  condemned  views 
to  favor  in  the  Church. 

But  while  the  doctrines  of  Pelagius  and  Ccelestius  were 
condemned  their  influence  was  not  counteracted,  nor  were 


THEOLOGY  AND  CONTROVERSIES. 


97 


the    views   of  Augustine    accepted  without    qualification 

throughout  the  whole  Church.  An  attempt 
gfanism^^''"        was    made   in    the   south   of    Gaul   (Massilia) 

to  find  a  middle  ground  between  the  two 
systems.  This  has  been  called  Semi-Pelagianism.  The 
most  prominent  advocates  of  this  position  were  John 
Cassian  (fi.  A.  D.  428),  Vincent  of  Lerins  (fl.  A.  D.  428), 
and  Faustus  of  Rhegium  (fl.  A.  D.  494).  According  to 
the  Semi-Pelagians  there  are  two  forces  working  together 
in  the  regeneration  and  salvation  of  man — the  grace  of 
God  and  the  will  of  man.  While  man  is  affected  by  the 
sin  of  Adam  he  is  not  rendered  utterly  incapable  of  doing 
good.  Hence  he  sometimes  begins  the  work  of  salvation 
which  the  grace  of  God  helps  him  to  complete.  At  other 
times,  however,  the  grace  of  God  begins  it  and  he  cooper- 
ates. Cassian  also  especially  rejected  the  doctrine  of 
Augustine  on  predestination.  Vincent  of  Lerins  at- 
tempted to  fortify  these  positions  by  setting  up  the  uni- 
form tradition  of  the  Church  against  the  positions  of 
individuals  or  special  local  divisions  of  the  Church.*  After 
Augustine's  death  his  views  were  defended  against  the 
Semi-Pelagians  by  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  (fl.  A.  D.  460), 
Cagsarius  of  Aries  (fl.  A.  D.  543)  and  Fulgentius  of  Ruspe 
(fl.  A.  D.  555).  Finally,  a  generalized  form  of  Augustin- 
ianism  was  adopted  at  the  Synods  of  Orange  (A.  D. 
529),  and  Valence  (A.  D.  529). 

A  heresy  which  grew  into  a  sect  arose  in  Spain,  led  by 
Priscillian,  a  wealthy  layman  of  good  family  and  education. 

Priscillian  appears  to  have  attempted  a  reforma- 
Prisciiiianism.    tion   of  morals   aniong  the   Christians  of    his 

region.  As  he  organized  separate  conventicles, 
however,  and  taught  opinions  concerning  Christ  which 
were  formed  under  the  influence  of  Oriental  speculation 
his  followers  have  been  regarded  as  a  sect  of  heretics. 
He  denied  the  charge  of  Manichaeism,  but  was  condemned 
by  a  council  of  bishops  at  Saragossa  (A.  D.  380),  and 
after  various  vicissitudes  he  was  himself  put  to  death 
(A.  D.  385),  being  the  first  to  suffer  death  for  heresy. 

*  Qiiod semper,  iibique  et  ab  omnibus  creditum  est  serves  as  the  norm 
of  truth. 


CHAPTER  X. 

NICENE   AND    POST-NICENE   CHURCH  INSTITUTIONS. 

The  worship  of  the  Church  becomes  more  fixed  and 
stately    during  this   period,    assuming    a  liturgical    form. 

The  distinction  into  the  two  parts,  one  in- 
Eucharistic        tended  for  all  without  discrimination  and  called 

missa  catechuincnorum,  and  the  other  for  the 
communicants  only  called  inissa  fiddiuin,  continues.  The 
second  of  these  is  developed  into  a  service  of  five  parts, 
I.  Prayer  for  different  objects  announced  by  the  deacon 
and  appropriated  by  the  worshipers  through  the  formula 
Ayrie  e/t'isou*  (Lord,  have  mercy).  2.  The  act  of  offer- 
ing in  which  the  worshipers  offer  their  gifts,  and  these 
are  collected  by  the  deacon.  After  this  the  holy  kiss  is 
exchanged.  3.  The  act  of  consecration  of  the  Eucharist 
with  the  responsive  Sursiim  corda  (Lift  up  your  hearts), 
the  words  of  institution  and  the  Epiklcsis  (invocation)  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  elements.  4.  The  communion  or 
participation  of  the  elements  with  the  singing  of  psalms. 
5.  The  dismission  with  prayer  of  thanksgiving,  and  the 
form  :   "  Go  in  peace." 

With  the  exaltation  of  the  ceremony  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  goes  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  sacrifice.  The  Old 
Testament    is    interpreted    as    typifying    Christ,    and    its 

sacrifices  as  foreshadowing  the  great  sacrifice 
Doctrine  of        of  Christ,  but  the  Supper  itself  takes  on    the 

form  of  a  repetition  of  Christ's  sacrifice.  Fur- 
thermore the  idea  of  a  change  in  the  elements  begins  to 
dawn.  The  exact  nature  of  this  change  is  not,  however, 
clearly  set  forth.  The  utterance  of  different  leaders  of 
thought    differ    very    much.     Thus,  the   efficacy    of    the 

*  Ki'pie  ilerjaov,  Lord,  have  mercy. 


NICENE  AND  POST-NICENE  CHURCH  INSTITUTIONS.       99 

Eucharist  for  a  large  number  of  ends  is  believed  in.  It  is 
a  means  of  protection  and  salvation  from  all  dangers  and 
evils,  and  a  benefit  to  the  souls  of  departed  believers  when 
offered  as  a  sacrifice  in  their  behalf. 

The   observance  of   Sunday  as   the   Christian  holy  day 
was  furthered  by  the  legislation  of  Constantine,  setting  it 

apart  as  the  holiday  of  the  civil  service.  In 
Sunday.  general  this  day  of  the  week  takes  the  place  of 

the  Sabbath  of  the  Old  Testament,  without, 
however,  a  formal  action  on  the  part  of  the  Church  or  a 
sharp  and  perceptible  transition. 

The    feast  of    Easter  was    the    first    and  most    impor- 
tant of  the  circle  of  festival  seasons  in  the  year,  though 

differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  exact  dale  of 
Easter.  it  Still  Continued.     But  the  Western  mode  of 

determining  the  date  approved  at  the  council 
of  Nicaea  prevailed  towards  the  end  of  the  period.  A 
certain  season  of  fasting  preceded  the  observance  of 
Easter;  but  here  also  custom  continued  to  vary  as  to 
the  exact  duration  of  the  fast.  The  period  was  called 
Quadragesima  (forty  days),  or  approximately  six  weeks. 
But  in  some  portions  of  the  Church  this  was  lengthened 
into  eight  weeks,  and  in  others  shortened  by  the  omission 
of  Sundays,  or  Saturdays  and  Sundays.  The  week  pre- 
ceding Easter  was  observed  with  a  minuter  regard  to  its 
significance  as  commemorative  of  the  Passion. 

Two  festival  days  sprang  up  independently,  one  in   the 
East  and  the  other  in   the  West,  commemorative  of  the 

appearance  of  Christ  on  the  earth.  The  East- 
Chris'jmal''"'^    ern  is  probably  the  older,  and,  under  the  name 

of  Epiphany,  recalled  to  the  mind  the  mani- 
festations of  the  divine  presence  in  the  baptism  of  Christ. 
This  was  observed  on  the  6th  of  January.  The  Western 
celebration  took  the  birth  of  the  Christ  as  its  object,  and 
developed  into  Christmas.  The  25th  of  December  was 
the  day  set  apart  as  the  probable  birthday  of  Jesus  Christ. 
These  two  days  met  with  acceptance,  not  merely  in  the 
regions  where  they  originated,  but  passed,  the  one  from 
the  East  to  the  West  and  the  other  from  the  West  to  the 
East,  until  the  whole  Church  recognized  both. 


lOo  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

From  a  very  early  age  Christians  expressed  a  high  de- 
gree of  veneration  for  the  apostles   and  other  characters 
whose  faith  or  holy  lives  were  commended  in 
The  Worship     ^hg    Scriptures.     But    it   was   during    the   age 

of  Siints  Slid  .  .  .  . 

Martyrs.  Under  Consideration  that  this  veneration  grew 

into  adoration.  Moreover,  the  circle  of  those 
whose  saintly  lives  thus  raised  them  above  other  men  was 
enlarged  by  the  introduction  into  it  of  martyrs.  The 
Church  at  first  adopted  the  custom  of  offering  prayers  for 
saints  and  martyrs.  In  the  fifth  century,  however,  this 
gave  place  to  prayers  to  the  martyrs  and  saints  for  inter- 
cession in  behalf  of  those  who  offered  these  prayers. 
The  saints  thus  prayed  to  were  supposed  to  be  in  a 
peculiarly  near  relation  to  Christ  and  capable  of  present- 
ing their  petitions  at  any  time.  The  burying-places,  too, 
of  martyrs  came  to  be  regarded  as  especially  sacred,  and 
were  chosen  as  suitable  sites  for  church  edifices. 

Naturally,   to   the  person  of    the  mother  of  Jesus  was 
attributed    at    least    the  same    sacredness    as    was    as- 
cribed to  the  saints.     The  prevailing  ascetic 
The  Virgin        [de^i  that  marriage  was  a  less  holy  form  of  life 

Mary.  "...  i   •      i 

than  celibacy  or  virgniity  gave  birth  to  the  no- 
tion that  Mary  remained  a  virgin  after  the  birth  of  Jesus. 
To  reconcile  this  notion  with  the  mention  in  the  gospel 
accounts  of  persons  called  "  the  brethren  of  the  Lord," 
two  rival  explanations  were  given  of  this  expression. 
According  to  the  first,  proposed  by  Epiphanius,  the 
"  brethren  of  the  Lord  "  were  cousins,  called  "  brethren  " 
by  a  Hebrew  idiom.  The  second  was  proposed  by 
Jerome,  and  explained  the  phrase  as  meaning  that  these 
"  brethren  "  were  sons  of  Joseph  before  his  marriage  to 
Mary.  The  view  of  Helvidius  that  they  were  children 
of  Mary  was  scornfully  rejected.  This  enhanced  the 
feeling  of  respect  for  Mary  to  a  point  beyond  the  venera- 
tion paid  to  the  saints.  She  was  spoken  of  and  ad- 
dressed as  "mother  of  God,"  and  churches  began  to  be 
dedicated  to  her,  besides  the  other  tokens  of  honor  ascribed 
to  her  in  common  with  the  other  saints  and  martyrs. 

Angels  also  were  by  degrees  included  in  the  number  of 
those    to    W'hoin    honor  was    to    be  given,   although    the 


NICENE  AND  POST-NICENE  CHURCH  INSTITUTIONS.      loi 

growth  of  this  custom  was  slower  and  met 
Angel  Worship,  with  more  opposition  than  that  of  the  worship 

of  saints. 
The  honor  accorded  to  the  saints  led  to  the  setting  up 
of  their  images  in  the  churches,  doubtless  at  first  for  the 
sake  of  keeping  their  memories  fresh  in  the  minds  of 
believers.  But  as  the  feeling  of  respect  was  transmuted 
into  worship,  these  images  themselves  became  the  objects 
of  worship — a  tendency  which  was  intensified  by  reports 
of  miraculous  healings  effected  through  them.  Already 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  Augustine  deprecates 
this  superstitious  custom. 

The  use  of  pictures  in  churches,  even  for  the  sake  of 
adorning  the  bare  walls,  or   otherwise  embellishing   the 

places  of  worship,  was  vigorously  opposed  by 
Image  wor-       |_}^g  ablest  of  the  church   leaders.     Eusebius 

took  away  two  pictures,  alleged  to  be  those  of 
Jesus  and  Peter,  in  order  that  the  heathen  might  not  say 
that  Christians  had  turned  idolaters.  Epiphanius  tore 
away  a  curtain  in  a  village  church  on  which  was  painted 
a  representation  of  Christ  or  some  saint.     Yet  the  love  of 

art,  especially  of  painting,  brought  into  the 
Opposition        Church  by  the  pagans,  was  so  great  that,  in 

to  Images.  .  ■'  ,  '     °  >  •   •  •     i 

spite  of  the  outbursts  of  opposition,  it  became 
the  universal  custom  to  adorn  churches  with  the  pictures 
of  saints,  apostles  and  martyrs,  and  even  of  Christ  himself. 
The  artistic  feeling  found  vent  also  in  the  form  and 
material  of  church  edifices.  The  basilica  was  the  com- 
monest of  the  types  of  church-building  after 
Buildings.  the  days  of  Constantine.  The  ground-plan 
of  this  type  is  an  oblong  with  a  semi-circular 
annex  at  the  end  opposite  the  entrance.  This  ground- 
plan  is  divided  into  naves  by  parallel  rows  of  columns 
running  from  the  entrance  towards  the  apse.  This  gen- 
eral type  was  varied  almost  indefinitely  by  the  addition 
of  a  transept  or  changes  in  the  mode  of  arranging  the 
naves,  aisles  or  roof.  The  external  form  of  these  build- 
ings was  also  made  a  study,  the  object  being  to  give  them 
an  imposing  and  stately  appearance.  Some  very  elabo- 
rate and  expensive  church  edifices  came  into  existence 


I02  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

soon  after  the  adoption  of  Christianity  as  the  state  religion 
by  Constantine. 

The  discipline  of  the  Church  was  maintained,  first,  by 
the  initiatory  act  of  baptism,  and  secondly,  by  legislation. 

The  first  was  designed  to  keep  out  the  unfit ; 
Discipline.         the  secoud    to    preserve    all  admitted    within 

from  falling  into  a  condition  of  unfitness  and 
to  purge  the  Church  of  the  unworthy  in  case  any  such 
either  entered  or  developed  within  her  ranks.  Baptism  was 
preceded,  as  in  the  previous  age,  by  a  time  of  preparation 
(the  catechumenate),  varying  in  length  according  to  the 
circumstances,  the  age  and  information  of  the  candidate. 
Stated  times  in  the  year  were  set  apart  as  seasons  fit  for 
the  administration  of  the  ordinance.  In  the  East  the 
feasts  of  Easter,  and  Epiphany,  when  Christ's  baptism  was 
commemorated,  were  thought  the  best  seasons.  In  the 
West,  Pentecost,  called  Wiiit  or  White  Sunday  (from  the 
white  robe  worn  by  candidates)  and  Christmas  were  so 

designated.  Baptism  was  supposed  to  have  a 
Baptism.  peculiar  etScacy  in  washing  away  sin.     Hence 

many  postponed  their  baptism  until  the  ap- 
proach of  death,  in  order  to  pass  into  the  future  life  as 
nearly  sinless  as  possible.  Even  Christians  by  convic- 
tion thus  delayed  entrance  into  the  Church  formally. 
The  ceremony  attending  the  administration  of  the  ordi- 
nance was  mainly  the  same  as  that  described  as  prevailing 
in  the  preceding  period.  The  Apostles'  Creed  and  the 
Nicene  Creed,  however,  came  to  be  used  as  baptismal 
confessions  of  faith,  and  the  ceremony  was  made  more 
elaborate  and  formal  in  some  minuter  details. 

The  legislation   of  the  Church  was  enlarged  by  the  in- 
corporation  of  the   canons    of    the   ecumenical    councils 

and  some  imperial  edicts,  together  with  the 
Law.  deliverances  of  some  of  the  provincial  councils. 

This  legislation  was  codified  by  John  Scholas- 
ticus  in  A.  D,  564.  Naturally,  such  legislation  had  primary 
reference  to  the  outward  life.  Spiritual  and  even  moral 
delinquencies  of  the  subtler  kind  could  not  be  touched 
by  external  legislation.  For  such  the  Church  attempted 
to  provide  in  its  penitential  system,  instructing  its  mem- 


NICENE  AND  POST-NlCENE  CHURCH  INSTITUTIONS.       103 

bers  that  it  was  far  better  for  them  to  confess  sins  of 
this  sort  and  endure  the  penalty  than  enter  into  the  pres- 
ence of  God  with  unforgiven  trespass.  A  special  officer 
was  appointed  to  receive  confessions  and  assign  penalties. 
He  was  called  the  "penitential  presbyter."  But  on 
account  of  abuses  in  this  office  it  was  soon  abolished. 
The  penalties  affixed  to  sins,  either  open  or  secret,  varied 
from  fasting  for  a  time  to  excommunication.  The  regu- 
lations governing  the  application  of  penalty  grew  into  the 
penitential  system  more  fully  elaborated  in  the  following 
period. 

Zeal  for  the  purity  of  the  Church  gave  rise  to  a  disrup- 
tion  in  this   period  which,  for  a   long  time,  harassed   the 

Church  in  North  Africa.     This  was  the  Donat- 
Donatists.         ist   schism.     The   Donatists  at  first  stood  for 

the  principle  that  the  Church  of  Christ  should 
be  preserved  pure,  and  that  no  person  guilty  of  sin  serious 
enough  for  excommunication  is  fit  to  perform  sacramental 
service.  Later,  when  persecuted  by  the  State,  they  added 
to  their  distinctive  tenets  the  principle  that  the  kingdom 
of  God  and  the  kingdom  of  this  world  had  nothing  in 
common.  The  occasion  of  the  schism  was  the  election 
and  consecration  of  Caecilian  as  bishop  of  Carthage  by 
Felix  of  Aptunga  (A.  D.  311).  The  charge  was  brought 
against  Felix  of  having  given  up  his  Scriptures  during 
the  Diocletian  persecution,  and  his  action  in  consecrating 
Caecilian  was  declared  invalid.  Majorinus  was  elected 
as  a  rival  bishop.  In  A.  D.  313,  Majorinus  having  died, 
Donatus  was  elected  in  his  place,  and  the  party  opposed 
to  Caecilian  was  named  after  him,  Constantine,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  tried,  first  by  force  and  then  by 
gentler  measures,  to  pacify  and  win  back  the  Donatists, 
but  without  success.  Persecution  only  developed  latent 
fanaticism  ;  and  under  the  name  of  Circiimccllioncs  they 
went  about  giving  vent  to  their  intense  hatred  of  the 
Catholics.  Throughout  the  fourth  century  the  con- 
troversy raged  with  fury  until  the  appearance  of  Augus- 
tine as  bishop  of  Hippo  in  A.  D.  395.  Augustine, 
through  his  manifold  efforts,  succeeded  in  winning  over 
many  of  them.     At  a  conference  in  A.D.  411,  before  an 


J04  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

imperial  delegate  as  arbiter,  he  confuted  their  champions 
and  the  schism  was  outlawed.  Soon  after  this  the  vandals 
invaded  Africa  and  Donatism  disappeared  in  the  chaos 
that  ensued. 

The  desire  for  a  strictly  holy  life  led  to  the  appearance 
of  unusual    forms    of    monasticisni.     Of   these    the  most 

singular  was  that  adopted  by  the  Stylites 
Monasticism.     (Pillar-monks).  These  lived  on  pillars,  whence 

they  exhorted  men  unto  good  works  as  they 
came  to  witness  their  strange  mode  of  life.  Symeon  the 
Stylite  (A.  D.  390-460)  attained  to  the  greatest  renown 
among  them,  having  lived  for  thirty  years  on  a  pillar  sixty 
feet  high.  The  j^^^r/ (Grazers)  withdrew  from  civilization 
altogether  and  lived  in  uncultivated  fields  and  deserts  on 
roots  and  fruits,  renouncing  not  only  all  the  pleasures  of 
the  world  but  also  its  labors  and  employments. 

Monks  who,  in  imitation  of   Antony,  lived  in  the  desert, 
especially  in    Egypt,   formed    communities.     About   the 

middle  of  the  fourth  century  these  communi- 
Ccenobites.        tics   began    to  be  organized.     Thus  arose  the 

Coenobite  monks.  Organization  was  soon 
followed  by  the  adoption  of  a  rule  or  body  of  rules  to 
govern  the  daily  life.  The  first  to  formulate  such  a  rule 
was  Pachomius  on  the  island  Tabenna  on  the  Nile  (A.  D. 
335).  The  society  of  monks  was  here  placed  under  one 
leader  or  head  called  abbas.  The  members  were  obliged 
to  spend  their  time  in  work  as  well  as  devotions.  The 
proceeds  of  their  labors  were  devoted  to  their  daily  needs 

and  the  surplus  was  given  to  the  needy.  Basil 
Monastic  of  Cs^sarca  devised   another  rule  intended   to 

^"'''^'  avoid    by     its    prescriptions    the    dangers  of 

monasticism  already  perceptible. 

In   the   West,  also,  monasticism   took    root,  but  in   its 
growth  it  showed  some  features   quite   at   variance   from 

those  of  the  Eastern  form.  One  of  the  most 
Western  Mon-  prominent  of  these  was  the  application  to 
asticism.  study.     The  monastery  at  Lerinum,  an   island 

on  the  West  coast  of  Italy,  assumed  the  character  of  a 
training  school  for  the  clergy  of  Southern  Gaul.  Another 
monastery  near    Marseilles    proved  to  be  an  important 


NICENE  AND  POST-NICENE  CHURCH  INSTITUTIONS. 


105 


literary  center  and  furnished  the  Church  with  the  works 
of  John  Cassian.  The  highest  form  of  monastic  rule  was 
reached  for  the  period  in  that  framed  by  Benedict  of 
Nursia,  Benedict  founded  the  monastery  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino  in  A.  D.  529.  The  rule  he  provided  for  it  was  cal- 
culated to  form  strong  character  without  encouraging 
eccentricity.  The  history  of  the  monastery  proved  the 
wisdom  of  its  founder.  And  the  rule  served  as  the  basis 
of  future  developments  in  that  direction.  Another  prom- 
inent monastery  was  founded  by  Cassiodorus  (A.  U.  540) 
and  devoted  to  the  training  of  copyists  of  good  books  and 
the  preservation  of  the  writings  of  the  fathers. 

Monasticism  found  also  some  opponents,  such  as  Jovinian 
and  Chrysostom.     But  the  tendencies  of  the  age  were 

too  strong  to  be  resisted  or  even  diverted  into 
Jovinian.  g,  soundcr  and  more  reasonable   view.     The 

criticisms  of  Jovinian  were  condemned  by 
Siricius,  the  pope  (A.  D.  390),  and  answered  by  Ambrose 
of  Milan.  Jovinian  himself  was  excommunicated  for 
heresy. 


PART  II.    THE  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD. 

(A.  D.  590-1517.) 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY  :     THE     GENERAL     CHARACTER     OF 
THE    MIDDLE   AGES. 

The    Middle  Ages   are    conveniently  so  called   from 
their    chronological    position    between    the    ancient    and 
modern  times.     The  ancient  civilization  reach- 
End  of  the        ed    its    culmination    in    the    Roman  Empire. 
Empire"  With   the   posscssion   of   power  and   the  con- 

sciousness of  superiority  Rome  lost  her  motive 
for  aggressiveness  and  vigilance.  She  became  unable  to 
guard  and  vitalize  her  vast  possessions.  Her  aristocracy 
and  governing  class  degenerated  both  morally  and  socially, 
and  the  hordes  of  invading  barbarians  found  it  an  easy 
task  to  enter  the  once  invincible  city.  In  476  the  western 
branch  of  the  empire,  with  its  seat  in  Rome,  was  formally 
given  up  and  Odoacer  under  the  title  of  king  assumed 
control.  Thus  ancient  civilization  came  to  an  end  in  the 
very  portion  of  Europe  in  which  its  existence  could  have 
affected  the  incoming  barbarian  races.  No  civilization 
was  ready  to  take  its  place.  Christianity  had  not  yet  had 
time  to  permeate  the  popular  life  and  present  a  ripe  system 
of  institutions  to  these  new  races.  Europe  was  plunged 
into  darkness.  Hence  the  name,  Dark  Ages,  often  applied 
to  this  period. 

107 


io8  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The    Church  grew  in  power  as  the  civil   government 
waned  before  the  advancing  barbarians.     But  the  Church 

itself  was  in  many  ways  affected  by  the  fall  of 
The  Church  the  old  civilization.  Faith  began  to  degener- 
Dark  Ages.        ate    iuto  crcduUty.     The    spirit  of  reverence 

and  teachableness  was  changed  into  abject, 
cringing  servility.  Spiritual  religion  declined  and  formalism 
increased.  Thus  the  light  held  out  by  the  Churchy  though 
not  extinguished,  was  partially  obscured. 

The  limits  of  the  middle  ages  may  be  determined  for 
the  political  world  by  the  fall  of  the  old  Roman  Empire 

in  476  as  a  starting-point,  and  the  fall  of  the 
Limits  of  the      Bvzantine  Empire  in  the  capture  of  Constan- 

Middle  Ages.       ..■'        ,      ,  .      't-,      ,        .  ..  j         t7 

tmople  by  the  Turks  m  1453  as  its  end.  ror 
the  Church  the  events  of  greater  importance  are  the  ac- 
cession of  Gregory  I.  (the  Great)  in  590  as  the  beginning, 
and  the  opening  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  15 17 
as  its  end. 

A  glance  at  the  map  of  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the 

seventh  century  shows  that  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Thessaly, 

Ep'irus,  Illyricum,   together  with  Asia  Minor, 

Geographical     now   Constitute    the    Roman    Empire,  whose 

Distribution  of  .,.,  ^i_-n  litT) 

Races.  Capital  IS,  howevcr,  not  at  Rome,  but  at  By- 

zantium. The  name  Byzantine  becomes  a 
fitter  one  to  designate  it  in  its  further  course,  not  merely 
because  of  the  change  of  capital  already  mentioned,  but 
also  because  it  develops  a  character  and  a  civilization  all 
its  own.  Western  Europe  is  distributed  among  a  large 
number  of  new  peoples,  chiefly  Teutonic,  but  with  an  ad- 
mixture of  Slavonic  elements.  Austria  is  occupied  by 
the  Gepides  and  the  Lombards  ;  Northwestern  Germany 
(to  use  its  modern  name),  by  the  Saxons  and  Thuringians  ; 
Switzerland  by  the  AUemanni ;  Italy  by  the  Lombards 
and  Ostrogoths;  Northwestern  France  by  the  Franks; 
Southwestern  France  by  the  Burgundians  ;  Northwestern 
Spain  by  the  Suevi,  and  the  southwestern  portion  of  the 
same  country  by  the  Visi-Goths.  North  Africa,  once  a 
flourishing  and  populous  Christian  region,  appears  under 
the  control  of  the  Vandals,  and  the  North  African  church, 
with  Carthage  as  its  center,  seems  to  be  blotted  out  of 


THE  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


109 


existence.  While  the  British  islands  are  for  the  most 
part  unaffected  by  the  migrations  of  the  tribes,  the  Angles 
appear  in  the  southern  portion  of  Britain,  and  the  Keltic 
Britons  are  driven  into  the  interior,  and  even  to  the  ex- 
tremities farthest  away  from  the  source  of  invasion. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  EAST. 

The  monotony  of  the  life  of  the  Church  in  the  Eastern 
Empire  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  was  broken 
by  the  appearance  of  the  vigorous  Arab  relig- 
hig^Ekraent's.  ^O"  ^^  jMohammed  and  two  controversies 
within  the  fold  itself,  one  relating  to  the  the- 
ological question  of  the  will  of  Christ,  and  the  other  to 
the  practical  one  of  the  worship  of  images. 

The  land  and  people  among  whom  Mohammedanism 
arose  were  fitted  to   produce  precisely  such   a   system. 
The  immediate  seat  of  the  origin  of  this  relig- 
Arabia.  ion  was  the  city  of  Mecca.     Here  was  located 

the  Kaaba  (the  cube),  a  heathen  temple,  made, 
according  to  the  legend,  by  the  angels  in  heaven,  and  let 
down  to  earth  in  the  form  of  a  tent,  used  as  such  by 
Adam,  but  given  a  more  permanent  brick  form  by  Seth, 
and  finally  reconstructed,  after  the  Deluge,  by  Abraham 
and  Ishmael.  This  sacred  place  was  guarded  by  the 
tribe  of  the  Koreish.  Within  it  was  the  sacred  Black 
Stone,  originally,  it  is  said  by  Mohammedans,  as  white 
as  milk,  but  turned  black  on  account  of  the  sin  of  man. 
It  was  also,  according  to  the  legend,  a  gift  from  heaven. 

The  people  of  that   portion    of  Arabia  in  which  Mecca 
is  situated  are  nomads,  claiming  descent  from   Abraham 
through  Ishmael  and  the  children  of  Keturah. 
tiieir'ReH^on^s?  The  religions   prevalent  among  them  just  be- 
fore the  advent  of  Mohammed  were  heathenism, 
Judaism  and  degenerate  forms  of  Christianity,  connected 
historically  with  the  heresies  rejected  and  condemned  by 
the    Church.      Ebionites,  Arians,  Sabellians,  Nestorians, 
no 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  EAST.  1 1 1 

Eutychians  and  Monophysites,  unable  to  live  under  per- 
secution within  Christendom,  withdrew  in  large  numbers 
into  these  regions  where  they  could  be  looked  upon  at 
least  with  the  tolerance  that  grows  out  of  indifference. 
All  of  these,  however,  reverenced  Abraham  as  the  father 
of  the  faithful,  and  in  this  fact  there  was  a  point  of  contact 
between  them,  and  a  ground  of  hope  for  their  unification. 
Mohammed  (more  correctly  Muhammad,  Abu-Al-Kas- 
sim)  was  born  in  570,  being  the  only  child  of  the  widow 

Amina.  His  father  died  before  his  birth. 
himmed.^°'       Ralsed   as   a   poor   boy,    he  married,    at   the 

age  of  twenty-five,  a  rich  widow,  Khadijah,  for 
whom  he  had  worked  previously  as  steward  and  agent. 
He  was  of  a  nervous  temperament,  and  almost  from  his  in- 
fancy had  been  subject  to  epilepsy.  This,  with  his  highly 
fertile  imagination,  made  him  the  victim  of  hallucinations. 
At  the  age  of  forty  he  appeared  in  the  character  of  a 
prophet.  He  had  received,  he  said,  a  divine  commission. 
For  twenty  years  he  maintained  the  claim  that  he  received 
revelations  while  in  an  ecstatic  condition.  He  began  to 
teach  his  new  faith  among  his  relatives  and  fellow-towns- 
men. His  first  converts  were  his  wife,  Khadijah,  his  father- 
in-law,  Abu-Bekr,  his  daughter,  Fatima,  and  Ali  and 
Zayd,  both  adopted  sons.  His  attacks  on  the  idolatry  of 
Mecca  drew  down  on  him  the  displeasure  of  the  Koreish, 
by  whom  he  was  persecuted  and  forced  to  flee  to  Medina 
in  622.  This  date  marks  a  crisis  in  his  life,  and  has  there- 
fore become  the  era  of  Mohammedanism  under  the  name  of 
the  Hedjira.  His  success  was  greater  at  Medina.  Hav- 
ing gathered  a  body  of  followers  here,  he  led  them  in  a 
military  campaign  against  Mecca  and  the  Koreish.  These 
he  succeeded  in  conquering,  and  accordingly  he  entered 
Mecca  in  triumph  in  630,  putting  an  end  to  its  idolatry 
and  compelling  it  to  receive  him  as  the  prophet.  As  he 
grew  in  power  his  character  showed  marked  changes. 
His  former  tolerance  and  friendship  towards  Christianity 
disappeared.  He  preached  and  practiced  the  destruction 
of  all  opponents  to  his  new  religion.  His  former  temper- 
ate and  frugal  habits  also  gave  way  to  sensuality.  He 
married  eleven  wives,  but   allowed  only  four  to  his  disci- 


H2 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


pies.  While  preparing  for  an  aggressive  campaign  of 
conquest  in  Syria  in  behalf  of  his  religion,  he  died  of  a 
violent  fever  in  632. 

Mohammedanism  as  a  religious  system  has  been  summed 
up  in  six  articles  as  follows,     i,  God  is  one.      He  is  all- 
powerful  and  all-wise,  and  to  be  feared  and 

Mohammedan      ^,  ,  ,,    ,        .      .  ,  .  .        ,  . 

System.  obeyed.       Submission  to   him    is  the  central 

principle  of  the  system.  Hence  it  is  called 
Islam.  2.  AH  events  have  been  foreordained  and  come 
to  pass  according  to  an  unchangeable  order.  3.  There 
are  two  classes  of  angels,  the  good  and  the  bad.  4.  God 
has  given  his  revelation  in  the  Scriptures.  5.  He  has 
sent  prophets  of  whom  Adam,  Moses,  Jesus  and  Moham- 
med are  the  greatest.  Mohammed  is  the  Paraclete 
promised  by  Jesus.  6.  God  will  judge  and  reward  or 
punish  all  men  in  a  final  judgment. 

The  Koran,  according  to  Mohammedanism,  is  the  last 
and  best  revelation  of  God,  and  Mohammed  his  last  and 
greatest  prophet.  The  Koran  is  a  somewhat 
The  Koran.  coufuscd  production,  Consisting  of  different 
utterances  by  the  prophet,  given  at  different 
times,  each  of  which  was  no  doubt  affected  more  or  less 
by  its  original  setting,  now  lost.  It  is,  however,  full  of 
lofty  poetry  and  breathes  a  pure  zeal  for  monotheism. 
Its  materials,  so  far  as  they  are  not  original  with  the 
prophet,  are  derived,  first  from  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  but  at  second  hand  through  the 
medium  of  the  imperfect  knowledge  of  them  possessed 
by  Jewish  merchants  and  heretical  Christians.  There 
are,  however,  also  elements  from  rabbinical  Jewish  tra- 
dition and  from  apocryphal  Christian  books.  The  ethical 
teaching  of  the  Koran  has  some  good  features  in  it,  such 
as  the  inculcation  of  honesty,  humility,  courage  and  tem- 
perance. But  these  are  counterbalanced  by  its  permis- 
sion of  polygamy  and  slavery,  and  the  exhortation  to  use 
violence  in  the  dissemination  of  the  faith.  Its  practical 
religion  may  be  put,  with  perhaps  less  regard  to  logic 
than  convenience,  in  the  four  duties  of  prayer,  almsgiving, 
fasting,  and  pilgrimages. 

During  the  Ufetime  of  its  founder,   Mohammedanism 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  EAST. 


"3 


did  not  spread  beyond  the  bounds  of  Arabia.  Upon  his 
death,  his  father-in-law,  Abu  Bekr,  and  later 
hrmmtdanUm.  Omar,  as  caliphs  (successors),  carried  it  into 
Palestine.  In  637  Jerusalem  fell  into  the 
hands  of  its  adherents.  In  639  the  whole  of  Syria  had 
been  subjugated.  Two  years  later  Egypt  followed.  Dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  seventh  century,  the  IMoham- 
medans  took  possession,  one  by  one,  of  all  the  strongholds 
of  North  Africa.  Thence,  in  711,  they  crossed  into 
Spain,  and  in  a  short  campaign  of  two  years  (71 1-7 13), 
succeeded  in  founding  the  Moorish  kingdom  there.  They 
then  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  threatened  Gaul ;  but 
were  effectually  stopped  from  further  acquisition  in 
Europe  by  Charles  JNIartel  at  the  battle  of  Tours  (732). 
Meantime,  in  the  East,  they  had  added  to  their  other  con- 
quests, Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  and  attacked  Constanti- 
nople. But  here,  again,  they  were,  for  the  time,  prevented 
from  further  progress  by  the  natural  strength  of  the  city 
and  the  use  of  Greek  fire. 

At  the  fourth  ecumenical  council  in  Chalcedon  (451), 
the  question  whether  Christ  was  possessed  of  one  nature 
or  two,  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  tvro-nature 
Controversy,  view.  This  decision  was  left  standing,  though 
a  concession  seemed  to  be  made  to  the  other 
side,  by  the  fifth  ecumenical  council  held  at  Constanti- 
nople (553).  But  this  solution  of  the  question  left  a  large 
body  of  citizens  in  the  remoter  regions  of  the  empire  dissat- 
isfied. The  menace  to  unity  and  prosperity  involved 
in  this  dissatisfaction  was  felt  by  the  emperors.  Acting 
upon  the  impulse  of  the  desire  to  avert  the  danger  threat- 
ened, the  emperor  Heraclius  (610-640),  procured  from 
Cyrus,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the  statement  that  "Christ 
as  God  and  man  in  one  person  performs  all  his  actions, 
both  as  God  and  man,  by  one  theanthropic  mode  of  oper- 
ation or  will  "  {lua  Osaydpufj  hepyeia).  This  was  approved 
by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Sergius,  and  by  the 
pope,  Honorius  I.,  of  Rome.  The  Monophysites,  too, 
accepted  the  new  statement  and  returned  in  large  num- 
bers to  the  Catholic  fold.  But  Sophronius,  an  acute  monk 
of  Alexandria,  saw  through  and  denounced  the  formula 


114 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


as  an  unwarrantable  concession  to  the  Monophysit'e  side. 
Becoming  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  later,  he  repeated  his 
rejection  of  it.  The  emperor  having  apparently  gained 
his  point,  now  set  himself  to  prevent  the  further  dis- 
cussion of  the  question.  He  therefore  issued  an  edict 
entitled  Ecthcsis — '^E/.Osfft.'i  -^9  Tziareuj^ — Exposition  of  the 
faith  (638),  reafifirming  belief  in  the  two-nature  view,  and 
forbidding  further  debate.  Meanwhile  the  new  view 
called  the  Monothelite,  from  the  assertion  of  one  will  in 
Christ,  found  many  able  opponents.  Maximus,  the  Con- 
fessor, and  the  Roman  Church  pronounced  against  it. 
The  emperor  Constans  II.  (642-668)  thought  it  necessary 
to  renew  the  prohibition  of  the  discussion,  which  he 
accordingly  did  in  stronger  terms  than  his  predecessor  in 
a  document  called  the  Typos  (648).  But  the  dyothelite 
(the  two-will)  party,  now  grown  to  formidable  proportions 
and  led  by  Martin  I.,  the  pope,  broke  out  in  open  defiance, 
and  in  a  council  held  at  the  Lateran  in  Rome,  declared 
that  Christ  was  endowed  with  two  wills  as  well  as  two 
natures.  The  emperor  had  Martin  seized  and  taken  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  was  sentenced  and  exiled. 
Maximus  was  also  seized  and  subjected  to  punishment 
and  indignity.  The  controversy  was  carried  into  the  fol- 
lowing reign.  Constantine  Pogonatus  (668-685)  called 
an  ecumenical  council  to  settle  it,  for  only  in  this  way,  it 
appeared,  could  peace  be  restored. 

The  council  met  in  680  at  Constantinople.  The  em- 
peror presided,  and  a  letter  of  Agatho,  the  pope  who  had 
succeeded  Martin,  outlined  the  solution  of  the 
kaYccfundi^""  question,  giving  almost  the  very  words  of  the 
form  adopted  by  the  council.  The  one-will 
theory  was  condemned.  All  Monothelites  past  and  pres- 
ent were  anathematized.  The  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople renounced  his  error.  His  colleague  of  Alexandria 
was  deposed. 

In  692  another  council  was  called  by  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian   II.    (684-695  and   705-7  [  I ),  which  confirmed   the 
condemnation     of     the    Monothelite    heresy. 
Councii!"'^^"'    This  council,  however,  was  convened  as  a  sup- 
plement to  the  sixth  and  fifth  ecumenical  coun- 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  EAST. 


lis 


cils  and  is  called  for  this  reason  Quinisext.  It  collected 
one  hundred  and  two  canons  bearing  on  ecclesiastical  law 
and  clerical  life,  and  issued  them  as  the  code  of  the 
Church.  On  account  of  the  insufficient  recognition  of 
the  authority  of  Rome,  the  popes  never  assented  to  this 
codification,  and  the  code  has  remained  valid  in  the  East 
only. 

The  Monothelites,  after  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  reopen 

the  question  through  the  emperor  Philippicus  Bardanes 

(71 1-7 13),  withdrew  into   Mohammedan  terri- 

Subsequent        tory,  clcctcd  Tohn  Maro  patriarch  of  Antioch 

History  of  the      ,,     ■'  iii>r  -.n  1  •  1. 

Mouothelites.     (hence   called    Maronites),   and  continued  to 
the     twelfth     century,    then     united,    without 
changing  their  views,  with  the  Roman  Church. 

The  growth  of  image- worship  became  a  reproach  to  the 
Church  in  the  East,  as  well  as  a  hindrance  to  the  progress 
of  the  gospel  among  the  Mohammedans. 
Image-worship  The  cmperor  Leo  the  Isaurian  (716-741), 
undertook  to  remove  this  cause  of  offence. 
In  726  he  issued  an  edict  ordering  the  putting  up  of  the 
images  in  the  churches  high  above  the  reach  of  the  wor- 
shipers' touch,  and  forbidding  prostration  and  kneeling 
before  them.  This  step  was  followed  in  730  by  the  re- 
moval altogether  of  the  images  out  of  the  churches,  and 
the  whitewashing  of  the  walls,  Germanus,  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  opposed  these  measures,  and  a  party 
of  Iconolaters  (Image-worshipers)  was  formed  around 
him  to  oppose  the  Iconoclastic  party  led  by  the  emperor. 
The  emperor  displaced  the  patriarch,  but  an  abler  cham- 
pion of  image-worship  rose  up  in  the  person  of  John  of 
Damascus,  living  within  Mohammedan  territory,  and 
therefore  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  emperor.  A 
council  called  by  the  next  emperor,  Constantine  Coprony- 
mus  (742-775).  in  754,  declared  against  image-worship. 
Laws  were  made  and  enforced  to  this  end  ;  but  the  monks 
remained  unflinching  worshipers  of  the  images.  At  the 
death  of  Leo  Khazarus  (775-780),  the  government 
devolved  upon  his  widow,  Irene,  during  the  minority  of 
her  son.  She  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  image-worship. 
Under  her  administration  a  rapid  change  came  about. 


ii6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

A  council  was  convened  (the  seventh  ecumenical)  in  787, 
at  Nicsa.  The  tirst  act  of  this  council  was  to  declare 
the  council  of  754  illegal,  and  its  decrees  null  and  void. 
It  then  formally  sanctioned  image- worship  and  anathema- 
tized all  opponents  and  dissenters.  Irene  put  herself  into 
permanent  possession  of  the  throne  (770-802),  by  having 
her  son's  eyes  put  out  and  himself  imprisoned  in  a  mon- 
astery. 

But  the  contest  was  not  over  with  this  first  triumph  of 
image-worship.  A  wave  of  reaction  swept  over  the  Church 
towards  the  last  part  of  the  reign  of  Irene  ; 
Controversy,  it  gathered  force  for  several  years  until  the  em- 
peror Leo  the  Armenian  (813-820)  took  ad- 
vantage of  it  and  again  tried  to  suppress  iconolatry.  A 
new  champion,  however,  now  appeared  of  image-worship 
in  the  person  of  Theodore  of  the  Studium,  a  zealous 
monk.  'J'he  controversy  raged  with  renewed  vigor.  The 
final  stage  in  the  struggle  was  ushered  in  by  the  edict  of 
Theophilus  (829-842),  in  which  all  worship  of  images  in 
public  or  private  was  prohibited.  But  with  his  death  his 
widow,  Theodora,  restored  the  forbidden  practice.  The 
"  resident  synod  "  of  Constantinople  (842)  reaffirmed  the 
decisions  of  the  seventh  ecumenical  council  and  estab- 
lished the  Feast  of  Orthodoxy,  in  commemoration  of  the 
complete  triumph  of  image-worship. 

In  the  West  the  iconoclastic  controversy  was  viewed 

from  different  standpoints.     The  Roman  Church  remained 

steadfast  through  it  all  in  its  adherence  to 

Seventh  Ecu-     the  practice    of   image-worship.     Quite    dif- 

menical  Council.,  '^       ,  V  •        i         r    i       /-^i  i 

The  Western  fercut,  howevcr,  was  the  attitude  of  the  Church 
Fmre-Worshi  '"  Gaul  and  its  patron,  the  emperor  Charle- 
magne. When  Charlemagne  received  the 
decrees  of  the  seventh  ecumenical  council  he  caused  to 
be  written  the  CaroUue  Books,  in  which  the  decisions  of 
the  council  are  repudiated.  Images,  it  is  further  asserted, 
could  be  set  up  in  churches,  but  they  should  in  no  case 
be  worshiped.  This  attitude  was  maintained  by  the 
Frankish  synod  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main  (794),  and  later 
by  that  of  Paris. 

About  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  Manichaeism 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  EAST.  T17 

in  a  modified  form  made  its  appearance  in  a  Syrian  vil- 
lage, Mananalis,  near  Samosata.  The  agitator 
Pauiicians.  of  the  movement  was  a  certain  Constantine, 
who  was  attracted  by  the  epistles  of  the 
apostle  Paul  and  attempted  to  make  a  new  combination 
of  Manichsiism  and  the  distinctive  views  of  the  apostle. 
He  assumed  for  his  system  the  name  of  Paul,  and  for 
himself  that  of  Sylvanus  ;  his  followers  also  took  the  names 
of  Paul's  other  companions.  Under  the  name  of  Paui- 
icians they  were  persecuted  locally  and  took  refuge 
among  the  Saracens,  and  later  in  Thrace  and  Bulgaria, 
Here  they  contrived  to  elude  their  persecutors  and  sur- 
vived through  the  Middle  Ages.  They  were  ascetics  in 
practice  ;  but  unlike  other  ascetic  sects,  they  did  not 
oppose  marriage.  They  accepted  most  of  Paul's  epistles 
as  their  canon,  including  an  epistle  to  the  Laodiceans. 
They  also  received  the  four  Gospels, 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   CHURCH    IN   THE   WEST   AND    THE   FRANK 
KINGDOM. 

Gregory  I.  (590-604),  whose  accession  to  the  papacy 
opens  this  period,   was  born  in  540,  being  descended    of 
rich  and  noble  ancestors.     His  early  educa- 
Gregory  I.         tion  was  intended  to  prepare  him  for  the  civil 
service.     He  entered  this  service,  and   in  574 
was  appointed  prefect,  but  dissatisfied  with  the  life  he  led, 
he  turned  to  the  monastic  habit,  devoting  his  wealth  to  the 
foundation   of   a  monastery.     In  579,  he  was  appointed 
representative  of  the  see  of  Rome  (apocrisiarius),  at  the 
imperial  court  in  Constantinople.     This  post  he  occupied 
until  585  when  he  returned  to  Rome  and  was  made  abbot 
of  his  monastery.     And  from  this   position  he  was  finally 
elevated  to  the  papacy,   being  the  first   monk  to  receive 
papal    dignity.     In  the   papal    throne  his  influence   was 
wholesome.     He  proved  himself  an   implacable  enemy  to 
all  forms  of  abuse.     A   rigid   ascetic   himself,  he  encour- 
aged  strict  morals    and   punished   simony.     In    a    large 
number  of  writings  which  he  composed,  not  as  literature, 
but  for  practical  ends  in  the  administration   of  his  office, 
he  proved  himself  a  skilled  ecclesiastic,  though  an   indif- 
ferent theologian,  and  vastly  strengthened  the  papal  idea. 
His  chief  contribution  to  the  growth  of  this  idea  was  a 
negative  one  outwardly,  and  consists  in  his  successful  con- 
flict with  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  as  to 
Controversy  as   ^he    usc   of   the  title   of  "  Universal   bishop." 
BishopHc^^       John  the  Faster,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
had   assumed   this    title    in    his  correspond- 
118 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  WEST  AND  THE  FRANK  KINGDOM.  119 

ence  with  other  prelates.  Without  setting  up  a  counter- 
claim to  the  title  in  behalf  of  Rome,  Gregory  used  all  the  skill 
he  had  acquired  as  an  ecclesiastical  statesman  to  refute  the 
claim  of  the  Greek  patriarch  and  cause  its  revocation. 
For  himself  he  distinctly  disclaimed  any  such  name  and 
called  himself  "  the  servant  of  the  servants  of  the  Lord." 
But  he  obtained  and  wielded  a  mighty  influence  and  gave 
the  papacy  a  stronger  impulse  by  his  negative  course  than 
he  could  have  done  by  loud  assertions  of  its  supremacy. 

The  successors  of  Gregory  on  the  papal  throne  for  the 
next  century  barely  maintained  the  high  place  of  the  posi- 
tion bequeathed  them  by  their  great  prede- 
Successors  of  ccssor.  One  of  the  nearest  of  these  boldly 
Gregory.  assumcd  the   title  of  "  universal   bishop "   so 

vigorously  repudiated  and  warred  upon  by  Gregory. 
Boniface  III.  (608-615)  turned  the  Pantheon  intoachurch 
"of  the  Virgin  and  all  the  Martyrs."  Honorius  I.  (625- 
638)  was  condemned  as  a  Monothelite,  and  Martin  1. 
(649-655)  suffered  persecution  as  aDyothelite.  Gregory 
II.  (715-741)  stood  firmly  for  image-worship  against 
the  emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian.  With  him  also  begins  the 
effort  of  the  Roman  Church  to  build  up  a  Christian  state 
in  the  West  that  should  serve  at  once  as  the  bulwark  of 
the  Christian  religion  against  attacks  from  without,  and 
the  support  of  the  see  of  Rome  in  its  increasing  alienation 
from  the  Byzantine  court.  The  immediate  occasion  for 
the  desire  for  such  a  state  was  the  attitude  of  the  Lom- 
bards in  Italy.  This  rude  race  had  taken  possession  of 
the  best  portions  of  what  once  belonged  to  Rome,  and 
were  harassing  under  their  leader,  Luitprand,  even  the 
estates  of  the  Church.  Gregory  appealed  to  the  Franks 
for  aid  against  them. 

Among  the  Franks  meanwhile  the  descendants  of  Clovis 
and  heirs  to  his  throne  had  fallen  into  effeminate  ways. 
They  had  been  supplanted  in  the  administra- 
The  Frank  tion  of  affairs  by  their  Mayors  of  the  Palace. 
Kingdom  ^j^.^  ^^^^^  once" in  the  gift  of  the  king,  became 

hereditary  with  Pepin  of  Landen  (639).  Pepin  thus  be- 
came the  founder  of  a  dynasty  of  Mayors  of  the  Palace. 
He  was  succeeded  in  the  office  by  his  son  Grimoald  and 


T  20  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

afterwards  by  Pepin  of  Heristal  and  the  renowned 
Charles  Martel (the  Hammer,  714-741).  Charles  Martel,in 
opposing  successfully  the  invasion  of  the  Mohammedans 
into  Gaul,  had  already  practically  assumed  the  cham- 
pionship of  Christendom  against  its  enemies.  To  him, 
Gregory  III.  (731-741)  addressed  himself  in  the  time  of 

the  Church's  need.  The  negotiations  begun 
Charles  Martel.  ^^  ^his  time,  looking  to  an  alliance  between  the 

Western  Church  and  the  Franks  were,  how- 
ever, interrupted  by  the  death  during  the  same  year  of 
both  Gregory  III.  and  Charles  Martel. 

The  successor  of  Charles  Martel  in  the  office  of  Mayor 
of  the    Palace,   Pepin    the  Short  (741-768),  formally    set 

aside  the  Merovingian  dynasty  and  assumed 
Pepin  the  t]-,g  name  of  king  as  he  had  already  exercised 

the  functions  of  one  previously.  Zacharias 
(741-752),  who  followed  Gregory  III.  in  the  papacy,  did 
not  at  first  realize  the  need  of  resuming  the  negotiations  for 
an  alliance  with  the  Franks.  He  had  either  outwitted  or 
intimidated  Luitprand,  the  Lombard,  and  stopped  his 
troublesome  operations  in  Italy,  without  the  aid  of  secular 
power.  But  Luitprand's  successor,  Aistulph,  renewed  the 
annoying  attitude  towards  the  Church  abandoned  for  a 
time  by  his  predecessor.  Zacharias  was  convinced  that 
the  alliance  with  the  Franks  was  the  best  way  out  of  the 
troubles.  He  appealed  to  Pepin  the  Short  and  sanctioned 
his  assumption  of  the  title  of  king.  It  was  during  his 
successor's  pontificate,  however,  that  Pepin  crossed  the 
Alps,  overcame  the  Lombards,  and  restored  to  the  Church 
the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna.  As  this  had  been  controlled 
before  its  subjugation  to  the  Lombards  by  the  Byzantine 
government  as  a  semi-ecclesiastical  possession, its  bestowal 
on  the  Church  of  Rome  formed  the  beginning  of  a  tem- 
poral power  for  the  papacy. 

When  Pepin  the  Short  died,   in   76S,  his  kingdom  was 
divided  between  his  two  sons,  Carloman  and  Charles  (the 

great  Charlemagne,  768-814)  ;  the  former  took 
Charlemagne,     the  Southern  division,  the   latter  the  northern. 

In  771,  Carloman  died  and  Charles  seized  h.s 
kingdom,  ignoring  the  rights   of  the   infant   sons   of  his 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  WEST  AND  THE  FRANK  KINGDOM.  121 

brother.  He  at  the  same  time  began  a  series  of  campaigns 
against  the  Saxons,  Lombards,  Bavarians,  Avars  (or 
Huns),  Danes,  Slavs  and  Greeks.  By  dint  of  great  cour- 
age, indomitable  energy  and  military  skill,  he  succeeded 
in  extending  his  domains  far  beyond  the  limits  of  his 
father's  kingdom.  In  fact  he  founded  an  empire  in  Europe 
excelled  in  former  times  only  by  that  of  Rome. 

Besides  his  military  achievements,  Charlemagne  also 
patronized  letters,  founded  a  school,  caused  a  grammar  of 
the  German  language  to  be  written,  and  a  collection  of  the 
old  war  songs  to  be  made,  dictated  the  Caroline  Books, 
and  finally  ordered  the  revision  of  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Bible.  In  all  these  enterprises  he  called  to  his  aid 
the  ablest  of  the  divines,  poets  and  scholars  of  his  age. 
He  was  in  general  a  man  of  keen  intellect  and  ardent 
piety.  And  yet  with  all  his  virtues  he  was  not  free  from 
grave  faults.  But  these  were  the  result  of  his  surroundings 
and  inheritance. 

Charlemagne  encouraged  and  strengthened  the  alliance 
between  the  papacy  and  the  Frank  power.  He  made 
several  visits  to  Rome,  in  one  of  which  he  was 
RoLM°Em-  declared  by  the  pope  Rex  Francorum  et 
pire.  Patricius  Romanonivi.     In  799  a    riot  in  that 

city  again  compelled  his  interference.  He 
lingered  for  some  time,  and  on  Christmas,  800,  he  w^as,  ap- 
parently without  premeditation,  crowned  by  Pope  Leo 
III.  (795-816)  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.     He  died  in  814. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

CHRISTIANIZATION   OF   THE   TEUTONS. 

Gregory  the  Great  was  noted,  not  merely  for  his  ad- 
ministrative   ability,    but    also    for    his    missionary    zeal. 

With  him  begins  an  era  of  organized  mis- 
GeneralChar-  sionary  effort  in  the  north  and  west  of  Europe, 
dieval  Missions.  The   general  course   of   evangelizing  activity 

in  the  Middle  Ages  is,  however,  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  ancient  period  by  some  striking  features. 
It  aims  at  the  conversion  of  nations  in  collective  bodies, 
and  not  at  that  of  simple  individuals.  Hence  political 
movements  play  an  important  part  in  helping  or  hinder- 
ing the  progress  of  the  gospel.  In  the  second  place,  con- 
version means  not  simple  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  as  a  Re- 
deemer, but  the  acceptance  of  a  system  of  doctrine,  tradi- 
tion, government,  worship  and  discipline.  And  thirdly, 
Christianization  is  also  civilization.  The  ancient  Church 
saw  itself  compelled  to  fight  the  form  of  civilization  it 
found  ;  the  medieval  Church  introduced  civilization  wher- 
ever it  carried  the  gospel. 

It  has  been  remarked   already  that  the   Keltic  Church, 
planted  in  Britain  during  the  ancient  period,   was  driven 

into  the  interior  by  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The 
Augustine  and    island    Seemed     to    be     plunged    back    into 

tne  Anglo-  ,  ,.  ..i--  /^  i 

Saxons.  heathenism.     At   this    juncture,    Gregory   be- 

came interested  in  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  sent, 
in  596,  Augustine  withLaurentius  and  forty  other  monks 
to  preach  Christianity  to  them.  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent, 
was  already  acquainted  with  the  Christian  religion  through 
his  wife  Bertha,  a  Frankish  princess.  He  received  the 
122 


CHRISTIANIZATION  OF  THE  TEUTONS.  123 

missionaries  with  favor  and  accepted  the  new  faith,  being 
baptized  in  597.  He  used  no  compulsion,  but  recommended 
Christianity  to  his  people,  and,  a  large  number  following 
his  example,  a  church  was  organized  and  Augustine  was 
made  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  After  a  short  period 
of  reaction  under  the  son  and  successor  of  Ethelbert,  who 
returned  to  paganism,  the  new  church  entered  upon  a 
peaceful  career  of  progress,  and  soon  replaced  heathenism 
throughout  the  whole  country. 

The  relation  of  this  new  Anglo-Saxon  Church  to  the 
old  Keltic  British  Church  now  absorbed  the  attention  of 
its  leaders.  The  Anglo-Saxon  clergy  claimed 
The  Keltic  the  authority  and  jurisdiction  of  Rome  over 
c  urcies.  ^j^^  British  Church.  But  the  British  leaders 
would  not  readily  give  up  their  liberties,  nor  abandon 
their  distinctive  practices  as  to  tonsure  and  the  observance 
of  Easter.  The  two  branches  of  the  Church  on  the  island 
were  thus  kept  apart  until  later  political  reasons  led  to 
the  absorption  of  the  Keltic  by  the  English  branch.  The 
same  struggle  for  independence  against  the  encroachments 
of  Roman  clergy  took  place  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  with 
the  same  result  of  final  absorption  by  the  church  planted 
by  Roman  missionaries. 

The   English  Church   of  this   period  produced   several 
men  of  note  and  influence.     One  of  the  early  successors 
of  Augustine  in  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
Christian  Lit-     bury,  Theodore  (668-690),  was  distinguished 
Enghnd"  as  a   student  of  the   Greek  fathers.      He  per- 

fected the  internal  organization  of  the  English 
Church,  and  composed  a  "penitential"  (book)  which  was 
used  long  afterwards.  Caedmon  (d.  680)  rendered  some 
of  the  books  of  the  Bible  into  Anglo-Saxon.  Bede 
(674-735),  called  the  Venerable,  a  presbyter  and  a  monk, 
in  Northumberland,  furthered  the  cause  of  education  by 
framing  a  number  of  text-books  for  learners  ;  but  his 
most  important  work  is  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
England  {Historia  Ecdcsiastica  Gciitis  Aiiglornni)  which 
has  remained  a  veritable  mine  of  information  for  the 
early  history  of  English  Christianity.  Finally  Alcuin 
(735-804),  began  in   York    as  the   head  of  a   monastic 


124  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

school,  but  removed  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne   and 
assisted  that  monarch  in  his  educational  enterprises. 

Of  the  Germanic  tribes,  the  Franks  had  already  been 
Christianized.  But  they  were  not  an  aggressive  mission- 
ary people.  The  Irish  Church,  on  the  other 
Columbanus.  hand,  was  conspicuous  for  the  zeal  it  showed 
in  carrying  the  gospel  to  the  yet  heathen 
centers  of  Europe.  It  was  from  Ireland  that  the  first 
missionaries  to  the  Germans  went  forth.  The  earliest 
band  of  Irish  monks  that  entered  this  field  was  led  by  Col- 
umbanus (540-615).  But  the  strictness  of  the  morality 
he  preached  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  the  Burgundian 
court,  within  whose  jurisdiction  he  started  his  labors. 
He  removed  accordingly  into  Switzerland,  fixing  his 
headquarters  first  at  Zurich  and  then  at  Bregenz.  But 
he  was  compelled  to  witlidraw  himself  from  here  also, 
and  died  in  Italy.  His  follower  Gallus  founded  the  mon- 
astery bearing  his  name  (St.  Gall). 

Another  band  of  Irish  monks  was  led  by  the  English- 
man Willibrord  (657-741).  This  band  entered  Friesland. 
Its  success  was  slow  and  the  results  insignifi- 
wiiiibrord.  cant.  But  the  establishment  of  an  arch- 
bishopric in  Utrecht  with  Willibrord  as  its 
occupant,  owning  the  allegiance  of  Rome,  was  deemed 
satisfactory. 

But  the  true  apostle  of  Germany  was  Winfrid  (680- 
755),  better  known  as  Bonifacius.     A  native,  of  Devon- 
shire, England,  he  gave  up  a  promising  career 
Boniface.  in   the  Church  in    his  native   land  in  order  to 

serve  Christ  as  a  missionary  to  the  Germans. 
He  first  joined  himself  to  Willibrord  in  Friesland,  but  as 
the  work  here  was  interrupted  by  war,  he  betook  himself 
to  Rome  to  receive  special  instruction  in  the  Roman  ritual 
and  ecclesiastical  law  and  a  commission  from  the  pope. 
With  this  commission  he  returned  to  Germany  and 
preached  for  a  few  years  in  Thuringia.  He  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  and  appointed  "  regionary  "  bishop  of 
Germany.  He  now  set  himself  to  the  task  of  first  reduc- 
ing the  existing  German  churches  to  the  Roman  form,  as 
they  differed  in  their   practices  from  Rome,  and  then  of 


CHRISTIANIZATION  OF  THE  TEUTONS. 


125 


overthrowing  idolatry  altogether.  Both  of  these  objects 
he  attained  in  the  course  of  his  ministry  of  thirty  years. 
Passing  into  Friesland,  he  engaged  in  converting  the 
heathen  to  Christianity  here  also,  when  a  mob  fell  upon 
him  and  his  followers  and  put  them  to  death. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT  AND  LIFE  IN  THE  WEST. 

While  Rome   continued  to   be  the  main  center    and 

source  of  influence  for  the  Western  Church,  a  new  center 

was   formed    at   the     court    of   the   emperor 

The  Court  of     Charlemagne.       Here  Alcuin   was  invited  to 

^"^^"^  '  superintend  a  system  of  schools  in  which  the 
liberal  arts  as  understood  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  taught. 
The  course  of  instruction  included  seven  studies,  divided 
into  two  groups,  called  respectively  the  triviiim  and  the 
qtiadrivium.  The  trivium  comprised  grammar,  logic  and 
rhetoric,  while  the  quadrivium  consisted  of  music,  arith- 
metic, geometry  and  astronomy.  The  schools  designed 
to  teach  these  branches  were  in  connection  with  the 
cloisters.  But  aside  from  these  schools  and  in  a  manner 
standing  above  them  for  more  advanced  study,  Charle- 
magne established  the  Court  School  {Sckola  Palatind). 
Associated  with  Alcuin  in  these  educational  enterprises, 
were  Paulus  Diaconus  (720-800),  and  Eginhard  the  biog- 
rapher of  Charlemagne,  who  also  succeeded  Alcuin. 

In  Spain,  Isidore  of  Seville  (560-636),  promoted  Chris- 
tian learning.  He  was  well  versed  in  Latin,  Greek  and 
Hebrew,  and  in  profane  as  well  as  ecclesias- 
isidore  of  tj^al   literature.     On  becoming  archbishop  of 

Seville  .  .  cy  v 

Seville,  he  established  a  school  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  Spanish  clergy.  His  works  cover  a  wide 
range  of  subjects  and  are  the  result  of  careful  study.  He 
not  only  enlightened  his  own  age  in  matters  pertaining 
to  religion,  but  left  in  his  historical  works  valuable  in- 
formation for  later  ages. 

The  Western  Church  was  agitated  at  the  end  of  the 
126 


CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT  AND  LIFE  IN  THE  WEST.  127 

eighth  century  by  the  appearance  in  it  of  a  form  of  thought 
called  Adoptionism.  The  kernel  of  this 
Adoptionism.  hcrcsy  was  the  teaching  that  Christ,  as  to  his 
divine  nature,  was  the  true  Son  of  God,  but 
only  the  adopted  son  as  to  his  human  nature.  This 
doctrine  was  first  taught  in  Spain  by  Elipandus,  arch- 
bishop of  Toledo.  it  was  approved  and  elaborated 
further  by  Felix  of  Urgel  in  Catalonia.  When  made 
known  at  large,  it  was  recognized  as  a  modified  form  of 
Nestorianism.  It  never  spread  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Gaul  and  Spain.  Felix  was  summoned  before  a  council 
which  met  at  Ratisbon  in  792.  His  teaching  was  pro- 
nounced a  revival  of  the  Nestorian  heresy,  and  he  was 
induced  to  recant.  But  on  returning  to  Spain,  in  spite  of 
his  oath  before  the  council,  he  reaffirmed  his  Adoptionist 
views. 

At  the  request  of  Charlemagne,   Alcuin  addressed    a 

letter  to    Felix   and  another  to  the  clergy  of   Spain  and 

Gaul,  refuting  the  new  doctrine.     The  Adop- 

Adoptionism      tionists   of   Spain  asked   that   a  new  council 

Condemned.  ^.^j^^    ^^     ^^^^^^    ^^    ^^j^^^^    ^j^^j^.    ^^^^^    ^  ^^j^j^ 

was  accordingly  done,  and  their  view  was  again  rejected 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  794.  But  even  thus  the 
discussion  did  not  close.  Felix  and  Alcuin  again  stated 
their  arguments.  Finally,  Leidrad,  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
persuaded  Felix  to  appear  before  another  council  at  Aix,  in 
799.  Here  Felix  professed  himself  fully  convinced 
of  his  error,  and  agreed  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life 
under  the  supervision  of  Leidrad.  But  in  a  writing  dis- 
covered after  his  death,  even  at  this  period  of  his  life 
spent  under  Leidrad's  care,  he  seems  to  have  still  cher- 
ished Adoptionist  views.  Elipandus,  living  among  Mo- 
hammedans, and  thus  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  Charle- 
magne, remained  constant  in  his  adherence  to  Adoptionism. 
The  union  of  the  Western  Church  with  the  Frank 
power,  though  outwardly  a  benefit  to  the  Church,  had  also 
its  corrupting  influence.  The  Franks  were 
Ecclesiastical     imperfectly  converted,  and  carried  their  crude 

Corruption.  ',  ■'  .  ,  ^  i.     •     ..        4.1   „ 

and    corrupt    ideas    of   government    mto    the 
administration   of  ecclesiastical  affairs.     The  first  point 


128  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

at  which  the  Church  was  unfavorably  affected  was  the 
episcopacy.  The  rulers  assumed  control  of  vacant 
bishoprics  and  at  first  nominated,  but  afterwards  appointed, 
the  new  bishops.  As  they  were  accustomed  to  expect 
pecuniary  compensation  for  the  bestowment  of  other 
secular  offices,  they  soon  began  to  exact  money  for  eccle- 
siastical offices  also.  Thus  the  election  of  bishops  by 
the  churches  became  obsolete,  and  vacant  sees  were  sim- 
ply sold  by  the  princes.  Gregory  I,  and  Boniface  pro- 
tested against  this  abuse,  but  without  avail.  The  evil 
was  partially  checked  by  Charlemagne  through  special 
legislation.  Charlemagne's  law  directed  that  bishops 
should  be  elected  by  the  churches,  but  that  the  approval 
of  the  secular  power  should  be  necessary  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  transaction.  He  was  himself  careful  to 
nominate  and  approve  only  capable  persons.  But  the 
reform  was  only  temporary. 

Another  point  at  which  the  influence  of  the  State  was 
felt  in  the  Church  was  ecclesiastical  legislation.  Such 
legislation  was  at  first  in  the  hands  of  local 
Legislation  counclls  undcr  the  presidency  of  a  bishop, 
nlinds  of  "the  ^  As  the  State  assumed  the  patronage  of  the 
Civil  Govern-  Church  the  consent  of  the  king,  and  later  of 
the  emperor,  was  deemed  necessary  to  legalize 
the  synods.  From  this  state  of  things  it  was  but  a  step 
to  the  assumption  of  the  legislative  power  in  the  Church 
by  the  imperial  general  assembly.  Synods  then  became 
unnecessary  and  were  discontinued. 

In  Spain,  the  secular  legislative  body — the  diet  of  the 
realm — was  reorganized  so  as  to  give  representation  to 
the  clergy.  In  this  form,  the  diet  devoted  its 
Law  of  f^rst   three  days  to    ecclesiastical    legislation, 

''*'"■  the  clergy  alone  taking  part,  and  the  remainder 

of  the  session  to  general  legislation,  the  whole  diet  par- 
ticipating. 

Charlemagne  divided  the  general  assembly  of  his  realm 

into  two  sections — the   secular   and  the  spiritual.      The 

former   consisted    of   laymen,    the    latter    of 

Of  charie-        bishops  and  abbots.     Church  laws  were  dis- 

^^^^'  cussed  and  enacted  by  the  latter,    but  must 


CHRISTIAN  THOUGHT  AND  LIFE  IN  THE  WEST.  129 

receive   the  sanction  of  the  secular  prince  and   be  pub- 
Hshed  by  his  authority  in  order  to  have  full  validity. 

The  tendency  of  the  laws  enacted  was  to   distinguish 
the  Church  as  a  privileged   institution.     The  clergy  were 
exempted    from    military    service,    at    first  at 
Legislation  as     their  own  optiou,  but  later  by  a  prohibitive 
^'^^^'  law.      This    measure    deterred    many    of   the 

higher  ranks  from  entering  the  clergy,  as  they  would  not 
bind   themselves  to  any  vows   which  should    hinder  their 
entering  a  military  career  when  opportunity  offered.     The 
consequence  was   that  the  clergy  was   replenished   from 
the  bond  class,  and  this  class  was  greatly  exalted  thereby. 
The  civil  authority  was  further  charged  with  the  task 
of  enforcing   ecclesiastical    discipline.     Punishment  was 
inflicted  upon  conviction    of   the  offender,  in 
DiscfpiTne!*^^     the   form   of   fine,  fasting,  pilgrimage,  scourg- 
ing or  imprisonment.     Private  sins,  instead  of 
being  confessed  as  heretofore  in  public,  were  taken  to  a 
priest    and    by  him  forgiven    upon   the   performance    of 
penance,  that  is  good  works  prescribed  by  the  priest. 

To  guide  the  clergy  in   taking  confessions  and  meting 

out  penalties,  penitential  books  were  composed.     These 

were   codifications    of   the  canons   of  synods 

Penitential         j^nd   ooinions  of   fathers   regarding  the   kind 

Books 

and  amount  of  penalty  due  each  form  of  sin. 
These  books  were  produced  locally,  and  are  known  as 
the  British,  Irish,  Prankish,  Spanish,  and  Roman  Peni- 
tentials.  Theodore  of  Canterbury  (6go),  Bede  (735), 
Egbert  (767),  Columbanus  (615),  and  others  prepared 
such  books. 

The  worship  of  the  Church  remained  as  in  the  previous 
age.      But   as   the  Western    clergy   needed   guidance   in 
preaching,    Books    of    Homilies    were    com- 
Homiiiaria.        poscd    for    their  use    {Homiliaria).      Charle- 
magne required  the  regular  practice  of  preach- 
ing, not  only  of  all  bishops,  but  also   of  all   priests,  who 
were  to  possess  copies  of  Hojniliaria  and  use  them.     At 
his  request,  Paulus  Diaconus  culled  out  of  the  works  of 
the  ancient  fathers  their  best  sermons   and  put  them  in  a 
Homiliarium. 
9 


I30 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


The  musical  part  of  the  service  was  enriched  by  the 
addition   of  the   organ   about   the  middle    of  the   eighth 

century.  Gregory  I.  introduced  a  new  style 
Church  Music,  of  chaut  to  replace  the  older  style  called  the 

Ambrosian,  which  had  become  too  much 
secularized.  The  Gregorian  style  was  deemed  more 
stately  and  slow  in  its  movement,  and  therefore  more 
solemn  and  appropriate  for  sacred  purposes.  Gregory 
also  composed  hymns  for  use  in  the  service.  Hymn- 
writing  was  cultivated  by  others  both  in  the  West  and  in 
the  East.  Among  the  most  eminent  of  these  may  be 
named  Gregory's  contemporary,  Fortunatus,  in  the  West, 
and  Cosmas  of  Jerusalem  (695  p-yGo),  and  John  of  Da- 
mascus (705  ?-78o)  in  the  East. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   PAPACY   AND   THE    HOLY  ROMAN   EMPIRE. 
(A.  D.   800-1073.) 

The  successors  of  Charlemagne  were  not  equal   to  the 

task  of  perpetuating  the  strong  government  established  by 

him.      His   influence   was  permanent    indeed, 

Decline  of  the    bu(^  hjg  dynastv  proved  to  be  one  of  the  shortest- 

Caroungian  ,.         ,.',.        ^'  .  .         ,  . 

Dynasty.  livcd  HI   history.      H IS  son,   Louis  the   Pious, 

(814-840),  inherited  his  religious  zeal,  but 
not  his  military  and  political  ability.  He  was  a  more 
suitable  candidate  for  the  cloister  than  for  the  throne. 
His  three  sons,  Lothair,  Louis  and  Charles  rose  up  in  re- 
bellion against  him  and  succeeded  in  wresting  the  scep- 
ter from  his  hands.  But  unable  to  agree  among  them- 
selves, two  of  them  combined  against  the  third  and  re- 
stored the  rule  to  their  father.  Three  years  after  his 
death  the  empire  was  divided  among  them.  Lothair  took 
Italy,  Louis,  Germany,  and  Charles  (the  Bald)  France. 
Thenceforth  the  territories  governed  by  them  remained 
separate.  Now  one  and  now  another  claimed  and  wielded 
imperial  authority,  but  the  empire  was  little  more  than  an 
empty  name  for  a  century  and  a  quarter. 

Meantime  the  papacy  itself  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 

mediocre  men  after  the  death  of  Leo  IH.     The  first  four 

popes  who   followed   Leo,  occupying  the  see 

Temporary  De-  from     816    to    827,    did    nothing    to    further 

cline  of  the  .  .  ''  /  r,       \ 

Papacy.  its    interests.      Gregory  IV.    (827-844)   took 

an  active  hand  in  the  troubles  between 
Louis  the  Pious  and  his  sons,  but  not  with  marked  re- 
sults. 

It  was  probably  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  ninth 


J 22  CHURCH  HISTORY 

century  that  the  so-called  Isidorian  Decretals  were 
produced.  In  this  collection  or  book  the 
The  Pseudo-  pope's  suprcmacy  in  the  Church,  his  inde- 
Sl!"'^"  pendence  of  the  State,  and  the  inviolability 
and  dignity  of  the  clergy  were  set  forth  in 
clear  and  vigorous  terms.  The  form  in  which  these 
principles  are  put  is  that  of  decretals  or  decisions  of  ec- 
clesiastical questions  by  the  bishops  of  Rome  in  answer 
to  questions  put  to  them.  The  collection  claims  to  con- 
tain such  decretals  from  the  time  of  the  apostles  onwards. 
There  had  been  other  books  of  decretals  put  forth  before, 
but  none  had  claimed  to  contain  anything  older  than  the 
date  of  Siricius  (A.  D.  384-398.)  This  collection  was 
published  under  the  name  of  Isidore  of  Seville  ;  but  it  was 
made  long  after  the  days  of  that  eminent  man,  and  is 
spurious,  as  very  clearly  appears  from  the  following  con- 
siderations :  (i)  The  language  of  the  letters  purporting  to 
be  written  by  the  earliest  Roman  bishops  is  the  corrupt 
and  mixed  Prankish  Latin  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  cent- 
uries. (2)  The  historical  conditions  assumed  in  the  de- 
cretals are  those  of  France  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  not 
those  of  Rome  before  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians.  (3) 
The  version  of  the  Scriptures  quoted  is  that  of  the  Vul- 
gate as  revised  by  order  of  Charlemagne.  (4)  The  an- 
achronism is  committed  of  representing  Victor,  bishop  of 
Rome,  about  A.  D.  200,  as  writing  on  the  Easter  question 
to  Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  who  flourished  about  A.  D. 
400.  The  real  author  of  these  decretals  is  unknown.  Sus- 
picion attaches  to  Benedict  Levita  of  Mayence,  but  no 
positive  evidence  can  be  produced  for  the  settlement  of 
the  question.  The  collection  was  first  used  about  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century. 

Gregory  IV.  was  succeeded  in  the  papacy  by 
Sergius  II.  (844-847),  he  by  Leo  IV.  (847-855),  he 
by  Benedict  III.  (855-858).  Between  Leo 
The  Female  IV.  and  Benedict  III.  a  tradition  of  late 
Pope  Joanna.  ^^^^  assigns  the  alleged  female  pope,  Joanna. 
She  was  supposed  to  be  a  German  woman,  who,  disguised 
as  a  man,  w^ent  to  Athens,  pursued  studies  and  acquired 
great  reputation  for  learning,  then  removing  to  Rome  she 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE.  133 

was  promoted  from  stage  to  stage  in  the  clergy  until  she 
reached  the  papal  throne.  This  story  is  no  doubt  a  fabri- 
cation. The  earliest  witnesses  to  its  truth  come  from 
the  eleventh  century.  No  break  occurs  in  the  papal  line 
to  admit  of  such  person  in  it.  The  Greek  hierarchy  carried 
on  a  bitter  controversy  with  Rome  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries,  in  which  they  cited  all  the  objections  they  could 
gather  together  against  the  papacy.  They  would,  no 
doubt,  have  cited  this  also,  had  it  been  true  and  known 
to  them.  A  sufficient  motive  for  the  fabrication  of  the 
story  can  be  found  in  the  corrupt  condition  of  the  papacy 
soon  after  this  time. 

In  the  person  of  Nicholas  I.   (858-867),   the  papacy 
found  one  of  its  strongest  representatives  and  promoters. 

This  pontiff  availed  himself  of  the  pseudo- 
Nicholas  i.        Isidorian  Decretals  and  pushed  the  claims  of 

his  office  in  every  direction.  Lothair  II.  had 
set  aside  his  lawful  wife,  Teutberga,  and  married  Wald- 
rade.  The  pope,  in  spite  of  the  decisions  of  the  arch- 
bishops of  Cologne  and  Treves,  sanctioning  the  course  of 
the  king,  compelled  him  to  take  back  his  lawful  wife.  The 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  for  his  part  in  this  affair,  was  dis- 
ciplined,and  submitted  to  the  pope.  Nicholas  also  claimed 
and  enforced  the  right  of  interference  in  the  affairs  of  the 
provincial  churches.  When  Rothad,  bishop  of  Soissons, 
was  deposed  by  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  pope  from  the  action  of  his  archbishop. 
Hincmar  denied  the  right  of  the  pope  to  entertain  the  ap- 
peal, but  Nicholas  obliged  him  to  reinstate  Rothad  and 
asserted  his  authority.  Nicholas  also  entered  into  contro- 
versy with  the  Eastern  Church.  Ignatius,  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  was  deposed  for  rebuking  the  immorality 
of  Caesar  Bardas,  a  court  favorite.  Photius  was  given  his 
place.  As  there  arose  some  dissension  in  the  Church, 
Photius  asked  Nicholas  for  his  support.  The  pope  as- 
sumed the  place  of  a  judge  and  pronounced  againt  Photius. 
This  led  to  mutual  excommunications,  and  the  bitter 
struggle  which  ensued  constitutes  one  of  the  stages  in  the 
progress  of  the  schism  between  the  two  churches. 

Nicholas   was    followed    by    Hadrian   II.    (867-872), 


134  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

who  saw  clearly  the  ideal  set  up  by  Nicholas,  but  lacked 
the  force  and  consistency  necessary  to  keep  as 
Hadrian  II.  near  it  as  Nicholas  himself  had  come.  He 
undertook  to  press  the  claims  of  the  papacy 
to  be  heard  in  a  dispute  between  Charles  the  Bald  and 
Louis  II.,  but  his  opinion  was  disregarded, -and  his  threats 
proved  ineffectual.  He  supported  Hincmar  of  Laon,  a 
nephew  of  Hincmar  of  Rheims,  against  his  uncle,  but  here 
also  he  met  with  a  rebuff. 

John  VIH.  (872-882)  was  more  successful.  His  au- 
thority was  in  a  manner  recognized  by  Charles  the  Bald, 
whom  he  crowned  emperor.  This  act  was  in- 
john  VIII.  tended  to  unify  Western  Christendom  as  in  the 
days  of  Charlemagne.  It  was  followed  by  the 
coronation  of  the  next  emperor,  Charles  the  Fat.  But 
the  inefficiency  of  this  ruler  proved  an  insuperable  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  the  effort  at  reunion.  He  was  deposed  in 
887  and  the  feudal  system  was  fairly  inaugurated  in  Eu- 
rope. Under  this  system  any  man  was  the  independent 
sovereign  of  as  much  territory  as  he  could  obtain  or  hold. 
John  VIII.  was  assassinated  ;  and  with  his  death  the 
moral  character  of  the  papacy  took  a  downward  course. 
The  politics  of  Italy  played  a  cardinal  part  in 
The  Pomocracy.  papal  elections.  The  political  factions  cor- 
rupted the  clergy  and  used  them  as  their  tools. 
Changes  in  the  papacy  became  frequent.  From  882  to  904 
twelve  men  held  the  office.  In  904  Sergius  HI.  (904- 
911)  assumed  the  papal  throne,  contrary  to  all  rules, 
by  the  aid  of  an  armed  force.  The  papacy  fell  under  the 
influence  of  unprincipled  women.  Theodora,  a  member 
of  the  Roman  aristocracy,  but  a  woman  of  corrupt  morals, 
together  with  her  two  daughters,  Marozia  and  Theodora, 
controlled  the  succession  of  popes  and  put  into  the  chair 
their  companions  in  guilt.  This  is  the  period  of  the 
"  Pornocracy,"  and  lasted  until  963.  The  last  of  the 
popes  of  this  generation  was  John  XII.  (955-963). 
He  was  the  grandson  of  Marozia,  and  had  inherited  the 
secular  government  of  Rome  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Alberic.  Elected  pope  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  retained 
the  name  Octavian,  as  civil  prince,  and  took  that  of  John  as 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE.  135 

ecclesiastical  ruler.  His  record  is  one  of  the  blackest. 
He  was  guilty  of  almost  every  crime  conceivable.  His 
enormities  led  the  emperor,  Otto  I.  (936-973),  to  in- 
terfere and  restore  order  and  purity  in  the  Church.  Otto 
was  at  first  content  with  an  oath  of  allegiance  from  Jolin, 
but  on  realizing  how  inadequate  this  was,  he  convened  a 
synod  in  Rome,  had  the  pope  deposed,  and  a  new  order 
established  under  a  new  pope.  The  relations  of  the 
Church  and  empire  were  settled  by  a  compact. 

After  fifty  years  of  comparative  order  under  the  com- 
pact with  the  Saxon  emperors,  the  papacy  fell  into  another 
era  of  confusion  known  as  the  "  Tusculan  Su- 
Supretmcy.  preiiiacy."  The  struggle  for  the  control  of 
affairs  at  Rome  narrowed  down  to  the  two 
families  of  Crescentius  on  one  side  and  the  Count  of 
Tusculum  on  the  other.  The  latter  prevailed,  and  with 
the  selection  of  Benedict  VIII.  (1012-1024)  the  papacy 
became  hereditary  in  the  Tusculan  family.  John  XIX. 
(1024-1033)  succeeded  his  brother  Benedict.  John 
was  himself  followed  by  his  nephew,  Benedict  IX. 
(i°33-i °45)-  Though  very  young  on  his  accession 
to  the  papal  throne  Benedict  was  noted  for  his  corrup- 
tion. He  surpassed  even  John  XII.  in  the  enormity 
of  his  crimes.  He  committed  murders  and  adulteries 
openly,  "  robbed  the  pilgrims  on  the  graves  of  martyrs, 
and  turned  Rome  into  a  den  of  thieves."  The  horror 
of  his  atrocities  exhausted  the  patience  of  the  Romans. 
They  expelled  him  and  elected  Sylvester  III.  (1044)  ;  but 
Benedict,  by  the  help  of  the  Tusculans,  returned  and  re- 
instated himself  in  power.  Later  he  sold  the  papacy  to 
John  Gratian  (Gregory  VI.  1045),  ^^'•''o  hoped,  by  reforming 
tiie  papacy,  to  justify  the  illegal  proceeding  of  buying  it. 
But  Benedict  returned  again  and  claimed  what  he  had 
sold,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  no  right  to  sell  it.  Thus 
there  were  three  popes.  It  was  time  for  the  emperor  to  in- 
terfere. Henry  III.  convened  the  Synod  of  Sutri  (1046). 
Gregory  VI.  presided,  the  two  other  popes  were  deposed, 
and  Gregory  himself  abdicated,  confessing 
imri*^"^  that  for  the  sin  of  simony  he  was  unworthy  to 

hold  the  office.     The  synod  was  adjourned  to 


136  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Rome  to  elect  a  pope,  and  the  Tusculan  ascendancy  came 
to  an  end. 

The   new  pope  was  Clement  II.,  who  reigned  but  one 
year  (1046-1047),  being  followed  by  Damasus  II.,  who 

also  reigned  only  a  few  months  (i 047-1 04S). 
Reforms.  With    the  accession    of  the    next   pope,    Leo 

IX.  (1048-1054)  there  came  a  man  on  the 
scene  who  as  the  counselor  of  the  popes,  wielded  a 
mighty  uplifting  influence  on  the  papacy.  This  was 
Hildebrand.  Born  in  the  lower  ranks  of  society,  he 
entered  a  monastery  at  Clugny.  Here,  as  Leo  IX.  was 
journeying  through  France,  he  was  attracted  by  Hilde- 
brand and  induced  him  to  accept  the  position  of  sub- 
deacon  at  Rome.  Hildebrand  gradually  grew  in  the 
estimation  of  the  leaders  until  his  word  was  regarded  as 
well-nigh  decisive  in  matters  of  ecclesiastical  policy.  He 
set  himself  to  reform  and  purify  the  clergy  and  emanci- 
pate the  papal  see  from  the  domination  of  the  State. 
Thus  under  the  successive  papacies  of  Victor  II.  (1055- 
1057),  Stephen  X,  or  IX.*  (1057-1058),  Nicholas  II. 
(1058-1061),  and  Alexander  II.  (1061-1073),  as  the 
power  behind  the  throne,  Hildebrand  went  as  far  as 
to  secure  the  adoption  of  reform  in  the  mode  of  papal 
elections.  These  were  referred  to  a  college  of  cardinals, 
which  it  was  provided  should  meet  in  Rome,  and  should 
elect  a  pope  out  of  the  ranks  of  cardinals  only  ;  the  clergy 
were  expected  simply  to  give  their  assent  to  the  action. 

*  Stephen  II.,  who  became  pope  March  27,  752,  died  a  few  days 
after;  for  which  reason  he  is  usually  omitted  from  the  list  of  popes. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    CHRISTIANIZATION    OF    THE    SCANDINAVIANS 

AND  SLAVS. 

Among  the  various  projects  of  Charlemagne  looking  to 
the  advancement   of  Christianity  was  also   one  having  as 

its  ultimate  object,  the  planting  of  the  Church 
Haraid  Klak.     in     the    Scandinavian     kingdoms.       But    his 

efforts  to  bring  about  this  end,  were  not 
destined  to  meet  with  success.  It  was  during  the  reign 
of  his  son,  Louis  the  Pious,  that  Providence  opened  the 
way  for  this  work.  Haraid  Klak  besought  the  assistance 
of  Louis  in  establishing  his  claims  to  the  throne  of  Den- 
mark. In  complying  with  the  request,  Louis  also  sent 
Ebo,  archbishop  of  Rheims  (822)  to  teach  the  people 
the  Christian  faith.  A  beginning  was  thus  made,  but 
Ebo  was  not  able  to  prosecute  the  work  very  far.  Haraid 
Klak  was  expelled  in  826,  and  took  refuge  at  the  im- 
perial court  (at  Ingelheim).  Here  he  was  converted 
to  Christianity,  and  on  his  return  took  with  him  Ansgar 
(801-865),  the  missionary  who  was  to  earn  the  distinc- 
tion of  being  the  Apostle  of  Denmark. 

The  first  efforts  of  Ansgar  were   directed  towards  the 
education  of  boys  who  should  teach  Christianity  to  their 

fellow  countrymen.  These  he  was  compelled 
Ansgar  in  to  redeem  from  the  condition  of  slavery  before 

he  could  reach  them.  But  even  this  form 
of  labor  was  soon  interrupted  (829)  by  the  expulsion 
of  Haraid  Klak.  Ansgar  removed  to  Sweden,  In  the 
face  of  discouragements  and  contrary  to  the  advice  of 
friends,  attacked  and  robbed  on  the  way  by  pirates, 
he  managed  to  land  at  Birka,  and  was  received  favorably 

^Z7 


138  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

by  the  king.  Here  he  found  that  he  had  already  been 
preceded  as  the  herald  of  the  gospel  by  certain  Christian 
captives.  The  mind  of  the  heathen  seemed  thus  pre- 
pared for  the  preaching  of  Christ.  Ansgar,  deeming  the 
time  ripe,  went  in  832,  to  Rome  and  induced  the 
pope  (Gregory  IV.)  to  found  the  archbishopric  of  Ham- 
burg as  the  metropolitan  see  of  Denmark  and  Sweden. 
Of  this  see  he  was  appointed  the  first  incumbent.  He 
was  further  reinforced  by  the  accession  of  Gauzbert  a 
nephew  of  Ebo.  Taking  the  hardest  part  of  the  field  to 
himself  and  giving  the  more  promising  part  to  Gauzbert, 
he  now  engaged  in  energetic  labors.  Gauzbert  also 
labored  in  Sweden  for  sometime,  but  aban- 
in  Sweden.  doned  the  work  in  845,  greatly  discouraged. 
Thus  the  whole  field  was  again  left  to  Ansgar. 
But  another  appeal  for  assistance  brought  to  Sweden 
the  energetic  Erimbert,  under  whose  direction  Christianity 
made  steady,  even  though  slow  progress.  Unni  (940), 
archbishop  of  Hamburg,  built  upon  the  foundations  thus 
laid.  Finally,  with  king  Olaf  Skotkonung  (1008),  who 
was  baptized,  the  Church  was  firmly  established.  Idol- 
atry continued  to  be  allowed  until  1075  when  Olaf's  suc- 
cessors wiped  out  the  last  traces  of  it. 

Meanwhile  in  Denmark  Ansgar's  efforts  resulted  in  the 
permission  to  build  a  church  at  Schleswig.  In  spite  of 
changes  in  the  attitude  of  the  kings  towards 
Conversion  of  |ii,^  j^nfj  his  work,  he  Continued  to  labor  in- 
cessantly until  the  time  of  his  death  in  865. 
He  built  hospitals  and  asylums  for  the  sick  and  the  poor, 
ransomed  captives  and  sent  missionaries  to  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  land.  After  his  death  the  missionary  work 
was  involved  in  the  political  situation.  At  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century  Denmark  was  united  under  Gorm  the 
Old  (941),  a  firm  pagan  who,  though  for  a  time  he 
allowed  the  preaching  of  Christianity,  resolved,  on  rea- 
lizing that  it  alienated  his  subjects  from  him,  to  extermi- 
nate it.  He  was  prevented,  however,  by  the  emperor 
Henry  I.  from  putting  this  resolution  to  action.  He 
died  in  941.  His  son  Harald  Blaatand  (941-991)  was 
converted  to  Christianity  by  archbishop  Unni  and  used 


CHRISTIANIZATION  OF  THE  SCANDINAVIANS  AND  SLAVS.  139 

his  influence  in  favor  of  the  new  faith.  But  he  was 
succeeded  by  Sweyn  (991-1014)  who  yielded  to  a  re- 
actionary wave  of  heathenism  and  waged  war  against  the 
Church.  Finally  under  Canute  the  Great  (1014-1035), 
Denmark  formally  entered  the  circle  of  Christian  coun- 
tries. Canute  invited  Anglo-Saxon  clergy  to  his  realm  to 
guide  church  affairs,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  reestab- 
lished one  bishopric  and  founded  two  others,  and  in  every 
way  adopted  the  Christian  religion  as  that  of  the  State. 

Norway  was  brought  under  one  government  by  Harald 
Haarfagr  (860-930).     He  was  succeeded  by    Eric.     But 
an   illegitimate    son,    Hakon   the    Good,  edu- 
Norway.  cated  in   England   and  baptized  as  a   Chris- 

tian, soon  supplanted  the  unpopular  Eric. 
Hakon  aimed  at  the  Christianization  of  Norway,  but  pro- 
ceeded with  caution.  He  finally  proposed  that  the  people 
adopt  the  Christian  faith  of  their  own  accord  ;  but  his 
motive  was  misunderstood.  The  proposal  was  taken  to  be 
a  secret  blow  at  their  liberties.  Meanwhile  the  sons  of 
Eric  invaded  the  land  and  in  a  battle  against  them  Hakon 
lost  his  life  (969).  The  country  was  plunged  into  polit- 
ical confusion.  The  Dane  Harald  Blaatand  invaded 
it  (975)  and  introduced  Christianity.  But  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Danes  was  short-lived.  It  was  overthrown 
by  Hakon  Jarl  (975-995),  and  with  it  Christianity  was 
put  under  the  ban.  Hakon  Jarl  himself  was  overthrown 
by  Olaf  Trygweson  (995-1000),  a  descendant  of  Harald 
Haarfagr,  converted  and  baptized  while  away  from  his 
native  land.  Olaf  now  attempted  to  force  his  new  faith 
on  the  people.  He  was  deposed  in  consequence  of 
a  second  Danish  invasion,  and  another  season  of  con- 
fusion followed.  Finally  under  Olaf  the  Saint  (Harald- 
son  1 01 4-1 030),  the  Christian  Church  was  put  on  a  sure 
foundation.  This  prince  died  in  a  war  against  the  Danes 
and   was  canonized   and   worshiped  by  his  people. 

Iceland  was  discovered   in  862  and  colonized  by  Nor- 
wegians.    But    the  gospel   did    not  reach   it,   at  least   it 
made  no  permanent  impression,  until  Thorvald 
Iceland.  Kodranson    while    traveling    in    Saxony    was 

converted  and  took  bishop  Frederic  there  as 


I40  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

a  missionary.  His  efforts,  however,  simply  prepared  the 
way.  About  the  year  looo,  two  natives  who  had  been 
banished,  introduced  Christianity  on  their  return,  and 
through  their  labors  it  spread  and  took  permanent  hold 
of  the  people. 

The  Slavs  appeared  in  Europe  early  in  the   Christian 
era.     They  were  originally  an   Aryan  race,  but   contact 

with  various  Tartar  tribes  caused  a  confusion 
The  Slavs.         not  merely  in  their  race  characteristics,  but 

also  in  their  religious  beliefs  and  practices. 
At  the  time  when  Christian  mission  efforts  were  under- 
taken among  them  they  had  a  polytheistic  system  and 
practiced  human  sacrifices  and  polygamy.  Two  waves  of 
evangelizing  effort  swept  over  them,  one  from  Constanti- 
nople and  the  other  from  the  court  of  Charlemagne. 

The  first  touched  Bulgaria,  whose  boundaries  were  ad- 
jacent to  those  of  the  Greek  empire.     Greek  captives  first 

made  the  gospel  known  to  the  Bulgarians, 
Christianiza-  ^nd  many  thus  accepted  it.  But  such  con- 
g^ria"     "         verts  were  called  to  endure  persecution.     In 

one  of  the  conflicts  between  the  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians  the  former  succeeded  in  taking  as  one  of  the 
captives  the  sister  of  the  king,  Bogoris.  She  was  con- 
verted during  the  period  of  her  captivity,  and  on  her  re- 
turn to  her  home,  persuaded  her  brother  to  accept  the 
gospek  In  this  she  was  assisted  by  Methodius,  a  Greek 
missionary.  Methodius  painted  before  the  king  a  scene 
representing  the  last  judgment,  and  succeeded  in  rousing 
his  fears.  Bogoris  was  baptized  in  863.  His  conver- 
sion led  him  into  a  bloody  conflict  with  a  faction  among 
his  subjects  who  were  staunch  heathens.  He  proved  vic- 
torious and  forced  the  whole  nation  to  follow  his  example. 
The  question  of  the  affiliation  of  the  Bulgarian  Church 
led  to  a  dispute  between  the  East  and  the  West  which 
was  finally  settled  by  the  diplomacy  of  Basil  the  Mace- 
donian in  favor  of  the  East. 

Moravia  was  in  political  relation  with  Germany,   and 
the  western  wave  of  evangelization  had  already  touched 

this  country,  when,  on  account  of  the  motive 
Moravia.  of   political  independence   from   Germany,  its 

king,  Ratislav,  sent  to  Michael  III.,  Byzantine 


CHRISTIANIZATION  OF  THE  SCANDINAVIANS  AND  SLAVS.  141 

emperor,  for  Greek  missionaries.  The  emperor  commis- 
sioned Cyril  and  Methodius  to  this  work.  Cyril  invented 
an  alphabet  for  the  Slavonian  language,  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  their  dialect,  framed  a  liturgy  after  the 
model  of  the  one  used  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  preached 
to  the  people  with  untiring  energy.  A  national  Moravian 
Church  was  thus  formed.  The  Roman  Church  and  the 
Western  empire  now  stepped  in  to  attach  this  church  to 
themselves.  In  868,  Cyril  and  Methodius  were  invited 
to  Rome,  and  a  compact  was  formed  according  to  which 
the  Moravian  Church  was  made  the  diocese  of  Pan- 
nonia  and  affiliated  with  Rom.e,  Methodius  being  appointed 
its  archbishop.  The  question  of  the  language  to  be  used 
in  worship  was  also  agitated.  The  pope  allowed  the  use 
of  the  native  language  in  preaching,  but  required  the  use 
of  Latin  in  the  liturgy,  Swatopluk  ascended  the  throne 
of  Moravia  in  870.  At  his  death  (908),  the  Moravian 
kingdom  was  conquered  and  divided  between  Bohemia 
and  Hungary,  and  the  Moravian  Church  lost  its  national 
character. 

Bohemia  was  made  a  dependency  of  Moravia  during 
the  reign  of  Swatopluk.     Its  prince,  Borziwoi,  on  owning 

allegiance  to  Swatopluk,  was  taught  the 
Bohemia.  Christian   faith,   and     baptized.      Methodius 

himself  went  over  to  Bohemia  further  to  in- 
struct and  help  him.  But  his  people  remained  for  the 
most  part  heathen.  His  successor,  Wratislav,  was  neu- 
tral. But  at  the  death  of  this  prince  (925),  his  two 
sons  took  opposite  sides  on  the  question  of  religion. 
Boleslav  was  a  fierce  heathen  ;  Wenceslav,  a  Christian. 
The  latter  was  assassinated,  and  Boleslav  the  Cruel 
reigned  and  waged  a  relentless  war  against  the  Church. 
The  emperor,  Otto  I.,  interfered  and  put  a  stop  to  his  per- 
secutions (950).  The  son  of  this  prince,  Boleslav  the 
Pious,  embraced  Christianity  and  established  it  as  the 
religion  of  the  State. 

Poland  received   the  gospel  from   Moravian  fugitives, 
who,  upon  the  occasion  of  the   conquest  and  division  of 

that  country,  fled  for  refuge.  As  Poland  was 
Poland.  in    a    manner   connected   with    Bohemia,  the 

conversion  of  that  country  naturally  reacted 


142  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

on  Poland,  and  the  Christian  religion  was  fully  estab- 
lished when  Mieceslav,  at  the  instance  of  his  Bohemian 
wife,  professed  Christianity  and  commanded  his  people 
to  follow  his  example.  The  foundation  of  the  see  of 
Posen  completed  the  work  begun  by  the  fugitives. 

Russia  claims  to  have  received  the  Christian  religion 
from  the  apostle  Andrew.  The  claim  is  based  on  the 
tradition  that  Andrew  preached  the  gospel 
Russia.  in  Scythia.     But  for  nearly  nine  centuries  her 

history  is  a  blank.  Ruric  was  chosen  ruler 
in  862,  and  is  reputed  to  be  the  founder  of  the  empire. 
The  relations  of  the  empire  of  Ruric  with  the  Byzan- 
tines brought  it  in  contact  with  the  Church.  But  it  was 
only  as  late  as  the  days  of  Vladimir  (980-1015)  that  this 
contact  brought  fruit.  Vladimir,  it  is  stated,  was  visited 
by  deputations  representing  the  four  great  religions  of  the 
day — Judaism,  Mohammedanism,  Roman  Christianity, 
and  Greek  Christianity.  Perplexed  by  the  representa- 
tions of  these  delegates  and  unable  to  decide  which  he 
would  have,  he  sent  envoys  of  his  own  to  investigate 
them  in  their  own  homes.  These  were  impressed  by 
the  pomp  of  the  court  of  Byzantium,  and  recommended 
its  religion.  Vladimir  allied  himself  with  the  Byzantine 
dynasty  by  marrying  the  princess  Anna,  and  joined  the 
Greek  communion.  His  subjects  were  baptized  in  great 
numbers. 

The  Wends  were  then  at  the  northwestern  end  of  the 
line  of  Slav  emigration.  They  were  near  neighbors 
to  the  Germans.  The  German  emperors, 
The  Wends.  Henry  I.  and  Otto  I.,  especially  the  latter, 
interested  themselves  in  them.  Otto  founded 
among  them  the  bishoprics  of  Havelberg  (946),  Bran- 
denburg (949),  Meissen,  Merseburg  and  Zeitz  (968). 
The  people  were  on  the  way  to  the  acceptance  of 
Christianity  when,  in  983,  Mistiwoi,  an  apostate  from 
Christianity,  checked  the  movement.  Later  he  repented 
of  his  apostacy  and  attempted  to  retrieve  the  harm  he 
had  done  by  activity  in  favor  of  the  Christian  faith. 
His  grandson,  Gottschalk,  also  began  as  a  Christian, 
and    after    a    temporary    falling    away     into    heathen- 


CHRISTIANIZATION  OF  THE  SCANDINAVIANS  AND  SLAVS.  143 

ism,  founded  a  Christian  Wendish  empire  (1047).  ^ 
heathen  reaction,  however,  well-nigh  swept  away  all  his 
efforts,  as  it  also  resulted  in  his  martyrdom  (1066).  The 
Wendish  Church  was  reestablished  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. 

The  Hungarians  (Magyars)  were  in  constant  touch  with 
the  Eastern  empire  and  Church,  but  seem  to  have  remained 

unaffected.  Otto  I.  first  compelled  them 
Magj-ars  to    admit    missionaries    into    their    territories 

(950).  Somewhat  later  their  prince,  Geyza 
(972-998),  married  a  Christian  princess,  Sarolta  of 
Transylvania.  She  influenced  her  husband  to  favor 
Christianity,  and  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  among  the 
people  resulted  in  the  acceptance  of  the  faith  by  large 
numbers  of  them.  There  was  a  heathen  reaction  when, 
somewhat  later,  Stephen  (998-1038),  the  son  of  Geyza, 
openly  avowed  Christianity,  but  this  was  overcome,  and 
the  Church  was  securely  founded. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONTROVERSIES   AND   SCHISMS. 

After  the  synods   of  Orange  and  Valence  (529)   de- 
clared in  favor  of  Augustine's  doctrine  of  sin  and  grace, 
the  Church  seemed   to  be  committed  to  this 
Augustimanism  system   as  a  whole.     There   were  many  how- 

In  the  Church.        -'  i  i-  i  r    n  »  •  i  i 

ever,  who  did  not  follow  Augustme  closely, 
especially  on  the  subject  of  predestination,  on  which  the 
synod  had  not  committed  itself.  The  discussion  of  these 
subjects  broke  out  with  renewed  vigor  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury within  the  Frankish  Church.  The  champion  of  strict 
Augustinianism  was  Gottschalk  (808-869).  ^^  ^  child 
Gottschalk  had  been  given  over  {oblat/is)  to  the  monastery 
of  Fulda.  On  reaching  maturity  be  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful effort  to  repudiate  the  vow  made  in  his  behalf  and  was 
allowed  to  pass  into  another  monastery.  He  incurred, 
however,  by  this  course  the  enmity  of  Rabanus  Maurus 
(776-856),  a  man  of  great  influence. 

Gottschalk  spent  his  time  in  the  seclusion  of  the  mon- 
astery in  the  study  of  the  views  of  Augustine.     Having 
become  in   this  way  an  enthusiastic  adherent 
Gottschalk.        Qf  thcsc  views,  and   observing  that  the  theo- 
logians of  his  day  were  far  from   the  stand- 
point of  the  father  whom  they  professed  to  follow,  he  flung 
the  charge   of   Semi-Pelagianism  at  them.     This  was  re- 
ported  to    Rabanus    Maurus  and  drew   from  him   a  de- 
nunciation of  the  preaching  of  Gottschalk.     Gottschalk 
summed  up  his  view  in  the  teaching  that,  "  God  according 
to   an   unconditional   decree  out   of  his  own   free  grace 
chooses  some  to  whom  he  imparts  the  grace  necessary  for 
144 


CONTROVERSIES  AND  SCHISMS.  145 

their  conversion  and  leaves  the  rest  to  suffer  the  penalty 
of  the  law  according  to  merit."  In  expounding  this  view 
he  used  the  iQxm predfsfinafio  duplex,  drawing  a  distinction 
between  the  predestination  of  the  elect  to  eternal  life  and 
the  predestination  of  the  non-elect  to  punishment.  Both 
predestinations,  however,  he  taught  to  be  in  themselves 
good.  Rabanus  Maurus  represented  Gottschalk  as  teach- 
ing that  the  elect  are  sure  of  salvation,  whatever  their 
conduct,  and  that  the  non-elect  could  have  no  oppor- 
tunity. 

The  dispute  thus  acquired  considerable  magnitude  and 
importance.     A  synod  at  Mayence  in  848  tried  and  ex- 
communicated Gottschalk  as  a  heretic.     He 
His  View  Con-   ^^s  referred  to  Hincmar,  who  brought  him 

QcnincQ.  ^ 

before  another  synod  at  Chiersy,  and,  having 
His  impris-       h^fj  g,  secoud  Sentence  passed  on  him,  scoursred 

onment.  ,  ,  ,  ■*■  '  o 

and  imprisoned  him.  Gottschalk  remained 
constant  in  his  views  in  spite  of  this  treatment.  Except 
for  the  act  of  throwing  his  book  into  the  fire,  under  the 
influence  of  physical  pain  he  showed  no  sign  of  weaken- 
ing. He  died  in  imprisonment  in  the  convent  of  Haut- 
villiers,  still  holding  to  predestinarianism. 

The  controversy  was  not  ended  with  the  condemna- 
tion of  Gottschalk's  views.  Prudentius  of  Troyes  (861) 
Ratramnus  of  Corbie  (868),  and  Servatus 
Controversy  Lupus,  abbot  at  Fcrricres  (862),  took  up  his 
john"s"cotus  teachings  and  presented  them  in  more  moder- 
Erigena.  ate  language.     These  were  men  in  good  stand- 

ing, and  to  meet  them  Hincmar  asked  king 
Charles  theBald  to  invite  John  Scotus  Erigena  (805-891), 
a  thinker  whose  acumen  had  obtained  for  him  a  high 
reputation.  Scotus  wrote,  but  in  a  mystic  pantheistic 
vein  which  was  neither  understood  nor  helped  the  cause 
of  Hincmar. 

A     second    synod    at    Chiersy    (853)   laid    down    four 

propositions,     (i).     Man   was  free   at    the    creation  ;  by 

the  abuse  of  liberty  he  sinned.     Out  of  the 

End  of  the        mass  of  the  lost,  God  elected  those  who  were 

^-^ontrovcrsv* 

predestinated  to  life.  Others  he  left  in  the 
mass  not  foreordaining  them  to  perdition,  but  foreordain- 

10 


146  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ing  punishment  for  them.  (2.)  Freedom  was  lost  in 
the  fall  and  regained  in  Christ.  (3.)  God  would  have 
all  saved,  though  all  are  not  saved.  Salvation  is  a  free 
gift.  Perdition  is  the  desert  of  sin.  (4.)  Jesus  Christ 
died  for  all  men,  though  not  all  are  saved,  because  of 
unbelief.  This  was  a  vague  vindication  of  the  predesti- 
narian  view.  A  clearer  statement  was  desired  by  its  ad- 
herents. Such  a  one  was  given  at  the  synod  of  Valence 
(855)  in  six  propositions  developing  the  doctrine  of 
Augustine  more  consistently.  To  remove  the  evident  dif- 
ference between  these,  Hincmar  and  Remigius  agreed  to 
refer  the  matter  to  another  synod,  but  this  was  not  done. 
Since  the  days  of  John  of  Damascus  the  Eastern  Church 
had  come  to  hold  that  the  elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper 
are  transformed  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Sacramentarian  jesus  Christ.  The  Western  Church  held  to 
ontroversy.  ^j^^  yiew  of  Augustinc  that  they  acquired  a 
spiritual  efficacy.  During  the  course  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries  the  growth  of  superstition  tended  to  the 
acceptance  in  the  West  of  the  Eastern  view.  This  view 
gained  ground  steadily  until  it  found  utterance  in  a  book 
by  Paschasius  Radbertus,  On  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
the  Lord.  Radbertus  taught  that  the  bread  and  wine 
were  efficaciously  changed,  so  that  after  the  consecra- 
tion, "there  is  in  the  Eucharist  nothing  else  but  the  flesh 
and  blood  of  Christ,  though  the  figure  of  bread  and  wine 
remain."  This  doctrine  created  a  stir  in  the  West. 
Charles  the  Bald,  to  whom  the  book  of  Radbertus  was 
dedicated,  asked  Ratramnus  a  monk  of  Corbie  for  his 
opinion  on  it.  Ratramnus  in  answer  wrote  a  book  bear- 
ing the  same  title  but  containing  exactly  the  opposite 
view.  The  Church  was  divided  into  two  camps.  Ra- 
tramnus was  supported  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  Walafrid 
Strabo,  Christian  Druthmar,  Florus  Magister  and  even 
John  Scotus  Erigena.  Radbertus  found  allies  in  Hincmar 
of  Rheims  and  Haimo  of  Halberstad.  The  weight  of 
opinion  was  at  this  time  evidently  against  Radbertus  and 
in  favor  of  Ratramnus,  but  the  question  was  left  open. 
Interest  in  the  discussion  abated  and  no  action  had  been 
taken  by  council  or  pope. 


CONTROVERSIES  AND  SCHISMS. 


147 


Two  hundred  years  after  the  appearance  of  Radbertus' 
work  On  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord,  his  teaching  was 

attacked  again  by  a  canon  and  director  of 
fnThl^vrews     ^^^^     school    at    Tours — Berengarius     (1000- 

10S8).  This  learned  man  embodied  his 
views  in  a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  abbot  of  Bee,  then  at 
Rome,  which  the  latter  referred  to  the  pope  (Leo  IX.). 
The  pope  put  them  before  a  council  at  Rome  (1050),  and 
they  were  condemned.  Berengarius,  himself,  was  sum- 
moned to  apppear  before  another  council  at  Vercelli,  but 
failed  to  obey  the  summons  and  was  again  condemned 
without  further  hearing.  After  a  short  interval  of  silence 
and  suspense,  however,  he  was  relieved  of  the  charge  of 
heresy  by  a  provincial  synod  at  Tours  (1054).  Here  he 
won  theconfidence  and  friendship  of  Hildebrand,  who  acted 
as  the  representative  of  the  pope.  But  his  opponents  were 
not  satisfied  with  this  result,  and  held  another  council  at 
Rome  where,  confiding  in  the  friendship  and  power  of 
Hildebrand,  Berengarius  presented  himself  (1059).  His 
trust,  however,  proved  to  be  misplaced  ;  for  he  was  made 
to  sign  a  statement  in  which  the  change  of  the  elements 
in  the  Eucharist  was  asserted  in  the  most  unequivocal 
terms.  Going  back  to  France,  he  reaffirmed  his  belief  in 
the  spiritual  nature  of  the  sacrament,  and  withdrew  his 
assent  to  the  statement  he  had  signed  at  Rome,  on  the 
ground  that  he  had  signed  it  only  from  fear  of  death. 
Thus  matters  stood  for  nearly  twenty  years.  Meanwhile 
the  tide  was  going  against  him.  In  1078  he  was  once 
more  summoned  to  Rome,  and  induced  by  Hildebrand  to 
sign  a  document  couched  in  ambiguous  terms.  But  as 
this  act  was  also  regarded  as  unsatisfactory  by  his  accus- 
ers, he  was  required  and  compelled  the  next  year  to  sub- 
scribe a  most  rigidly  transubstantiationist  formula.  The 
only  alternative  left  him  appeared  to  be  a  martyr's  death. 
He  signed,  and  was  allowed  to  go  back  to  his  home,  where 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  great  dejection  of  spirit. 
Thus  Lanfranc's  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  triumphed 
in  the  Church. 

A  theological  difference  arose  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  branches  of  the  Church,  which  was  destined  to 


148  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

result  in  the  final  separation  of  these  branches 
b'e't^^^en"^  i^to  tvvo  Organizations,  each  one  of  which 
Eastern  and  looks  on  the  Other  as  schismatic.  This  was 
Churches.         the  difference  on  the  subject  of  the  procession 

of  the  Holy  Spirit.  While,  however,  this  the- 
ological difference  was  used  as  the  primary  occasion  of 
the  separation,  there  were  other  causes  of  a  more  funda- 
mental nature  that  brought  it  about.  The  chief  one  of 
these  was  probably  the  political  alienation  of  the  East 
and  West  when  the  Frankish  kingdom  was  formed. 
Ecclesiastical  government  was  administered  upon  geo- 
graphical lines,  and  with  the  sharp  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  East  and  West  created  by  the  new  western 
state,  there  arose  a  rivalry  between  the  two  branches  of 
the  Church  represented  respectively  at  Constantinople 
and  Rome.  Along  with  the  political  difference  there  ap- 
peared also,  very  naturally,  a  series  of  variations  of  minor 
importance  in  worship  and  practice.  The  Eastern  Church 
recognized  eighty-five  apostolical  canons  as  valid ;  the 
Western  only  fifty.  The  Eastern  forbade  the  ordination 
of  married  men  to  episcopal  rank  only,  keeping  all  lower 
ranks  of  clergy  open  to  them,  but  not  allowing  marriage 
after  ordination  ;  the  Western  prohibited  marriage  to  all 
clergy.  The  Eastern  Church  forbade  fasting  on  Saturdays ; 
the  Western  allowed  it.  The  Eastern  Church  forbade  eat- 
ing of  blood  and  things  strangled,  and  the  use  of  the  figure 
of  the  lamb  as  a  symbol  of  Christ ;  the  Western  allowed 
all  these  things.  As  for  the  difference  on  the  subject  of 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  was  clearly  brought 
to  light  in  the  adoption  of  the  clause  "  and  from  the  Son  " 
{Fiiioquc)  in  the  Creed  by  the  council  of  Toledo  (589), 
later  also  at  Gentilly  (767),  Friaul  (796),  and  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (809). 

These  differences  could  not  long  remain  unobserved. 
Jt  was  only  necessary  for  a  suitable  occasion  to  appear  in 

order  that  they  might  lead  to  a  disruption. 
Separation  in  Such  an  occasion  did  present  itself  when 
Ce^'nui'i^'^.  Photius  appealed  to  Nicholas  I.  to  help  him 

in  enforcing  the  deposition  of  Ignatius  his 
predecessor.     Nicholas,  assuming  the  position  of  a  su- 


CONTROVERSIES  AND  SCHISMS- 


149 


perior  and  judge,  pronounced  against  Photius.  As  the 
latter  resisted  tiie  authority  thus  assumed,  the  pope  ex- 
communicated him.  A  violent  controversy  ensued  in 
which  both  sides  held  up  the  differences  existing  between 
them  and  charged  each  other  with  departure  from  the  faith. 
The  question  was  complicated  by  the  new  dispute  as  to 
the  allegiance  of  the  Bulgarian  Church.  A  council  called 
ex  parte  met  in  Constantinople  in  867  and  pronounced, 
as  was  expected,  for  the  Eastern  side.  But  a  change 
of  dynasty  in  Constantinople  altered  the  face  of  affairs. 
The  new  emperor,  Basil  the  Macedonian,  declared  against 
Photius,  deposed  him  and  reinstated  Ignatius  and  pro- 
nounced the  decisions  of  council  of  867  null  and  void. 
Another  council  in  869  confirmed  these  acts  of  Basil. 
This  was  satisfactory  to  the  Western  Church  and  the 
council  was  recognized  as  the  eighth  ecumenical.  But 
Photius  was  presently  reelected  patriarch  and  became 
sufficiently  reconciled  to  the  pope  to  have  the  ques- 
tion reopened.  A  third  council  was  therefore  called, 
W'hich  met  in  Constantinople  in  879-880.  This  coun- 
cil rescinded  the  action  of  that  of  869,  reinstated  Photius, 
anathematized  believers  in  iheJUioqae  and  other  changes 
in  the  Nicene  Symbol.  The  papal  delegates  were  bribed 
to  concur  in  these  decisions  and  went  back  with  false  re- 
ports of  the  proceedings  to  the  pope.  On  discovering  the 
deception  the  pope  anathematized  Photius  and  repudiated 
the  action  of  his  representatives.  IMeanwhile  another 
change  at  Constantinople  led  to  the  deposition  of  Photius 
and  the  suspension  of  the  discussion   at  this  point. 

During  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  a  new  dif- 
ference between  the  two  branches  of  the  Church  arose  on 

the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist. 
Final  Schism.     The  custom   of   using  such   bread  had  grown 

imperceptibly  in  the  West  since  the  ninth 
century.  In  1053  the  patriarch  Michael  Cerularius 
charged  the  Western  Church  with  imitating  the  Jews  in 
the  observance  of  Easter.  He  called  them  "  Azymites  " 
on  account  of  their  use  of  unleavened  bread.*  The 
charges  were  met  by  countercharges.  Cardinal  Humbert, 
*  a^vfioq,  bread  made  witliout  leaven. 


1 50  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

a  man  of  violent  temper,  appeared  as  the  champion  of 
the  Roman  side.  To  arrest  the  controversy  the  emperor 
Constantine  Monomachus  proposed  a  conference.  The 
Western  delegates  led  by  Humbert  appeared  in  Constanti- 
nople and  were  favored  by  the  emperor.  The  patriarch 
and  people,  however,  stanchly  refused  to  agree  on  the 
terms  of  reconciliation  proposed  by  them.  Finding  it  im- 
possible to  make  further  progress  towards  an  understand- 
ing they  laid  an  excommunication  on  the  altar  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Sophia  (July  17,  1054)  and  departed.  The 
patriarch  in  his  turn  excommunicated  the  pope  and  the 
schism  was  complete. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

LIFE   AND    MORALS   IN   THE   MEDIEVAL   CHURCH. 

The  marked  feature  of  the  age  is  the  divorce  of  rehgion 
and  morals.  While  piety  was  externally  very  great,  its 
root  was  superstition  rather  than  vital  godli- 
Degeneration  ness.  Fear  and  not  love  was  the  actuating 
of  Morals.  niotive  in  the  religious  life.  It  was  not  un- 
common for  Christians  to  express  their  devotion  to  their 
faith  by  building  churches,  going  on  pilgrimages,  under- 
taking the  defence  of  the  Church  against  her  enemies,  and 
scrupulously  obeying  her  prescriptions  in  external  matters  ; 
and  yet  living  immoral  lives.  The  Frank  kings  were  no- 
torious criminals.  Their  example  could  not  fail  to  have 
its  effect  on  the  people.  Thus  as  the  age  advanced  mor- 
als degenerated. 

The  tenth  century  particularly  is  distinguished  as  the 
period  of  the  lowest   ebb   in   morals   in  Europe.     It  has 
for  this  reason   been    called  the    Dark  Cen- 
The  Dark         tury    {seculuni  ohscuruni).     As  the    year   looo 
entury.  (jrew    near    the    superstitious    belief    gained 

ground  that  the  world  was  coming  to  its  end.  This  be- 
lief had  the  natural  effect  of  paralysing  the  energies  of 
the  Church.  Lawlessness  prevailed.  Piracy,  brigand- 
age, and  ruffianism,  became  very  common. 

Still  in  the  midst  of  confusion  the    Church  continued, 

like  good  leaven,  leavening  the  lump  of  society.     There 

were  cases  of  lofty  spiritual  ideals,  rare  indeed, 

The  whole-       but  therefore  all  the  more  remarkable.     And 

some  Influence      ,  i    ,i      •       •  •       i-  >.       lU        „      .,„!   „„ 

of  the  Church,    these  owed  their  inspiration  to  the   gospel  as 
taught  by  the  Church.     1'he  Apostles'  Creed, 

151 


152  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ten  Commandments  continued 
to  be  taught  and  held  by  all  Christians  and  their  diffusion 
among  the  people  could  not  fail  to  have  some  effect. 
Family  life  was  not  what  it  should  have  been,  but 
it  was  purer  than  among  the  Oriental  un-Christian 
nations,  or  among  the  ancient  pagan  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. 

Slavery  was  common  and  allowed  by  the  Church  ;  but 
its  severities  were  much  softened  by  wholesome  ecclesi- 
astical   legislation.     Asylum    was    offered    to 
Slavery.  fugitive  slavcs  on  the  same  terms  as  to  other 

fugitives.  Children  of  slaves  were  educated 
for  the  priesthood,  though  in  order  to  be  ordained  they 
must  be  first  emancipated.  The  marriage  of  a  free  person 
and  a  slave  was  permitted,  if  the  condition  of  the  slave 
was  known  to  the  free  party.  No  slave  was  obliged  to 
work  on  Sunday.  Nor  were  the  owners  of  slaves  per- 
mitted to  sell  them  to  Jews  or  to  pagans.  Emancipation 
was  encouraged  and  many  were  led  to  give  their  slaves 
their  freedom. 

As  long  as  society  existed  in  a  disintegrated  condition 

and  justice  or  redress  could  not  be  secured  through  a 

common   government    whose   power  was    re- 

Private  Feuds,  spcctcd,  each  family  or  clan  tried  to  secure  it 

Truce  of  God.         '^     .  •  -'         _-ii  • 

on  Its  own  account.  1  his  gave  rise  to  num- 
berless private  wars  or  feuds.  Some  of  these  were  nat- 
urally fierce  and  lasted  for  a  long  time.  The  Church  set 
its  face  against  these  private  feuds  as  also  against  duels. 
But  unable  to  stop  them  entirely  it  finally  devised  the 
"Truce  of  God"  (Treiiga  Dei)  as  a  means  of  lessening 
the  evil  in  them.  This  institution  arose  in  Aquitaine 
near  the  close  of  the  period  under  consideration  (1033). 
It  consisted  in  the  total  suspension  of  hostilities  between 
Wednesday  evening  and  Monday  morning — on  Friday, 
Saturday  and  Sunday,  in  memory  of  the  events  which 
occurred  on  these  days  during  Passion  week,  and  on 
Thursday  because  of  Christ's  ascension.  Thus  did  the 
memory  of  the  Prince  of  Peace  act  as  a  peacemaker  in 
the  days  of  fierce  passions  and  cruel  feuds. 

Wherever  it  was  possible  the  Church  used  its  discipline 


LIEE  AND  MORALS  IN  THE  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH.         153 

in  bringing  the  disobedient  and  lawless  to  penitence  and  ref- 
ormation. Three  grades  of  discipline  came 
Discipline.  to  be  rccognizcd,  viz. :  (i)  Excommunication 
from  or  exclusion  from  the  sacrament ;  (2) 
Anathema  which  at  the  council  of  Pavia  in  950  was  de- 
fined as  "  a  higher  species  of  excommunication  "  and  in- 
cluded the  threat  of  special  penalties  in  the  future  life  ; 
besides  mere  exclusion  from  church  privileges  in  this  life  ; 
and  (3)  The  Interdict.  This  form  of  discipline  was  in- 
flicted on  rulers  or  princes  and  consisted  in  the  prohibi- 
tion of  all  religious  services  within  their  territories,  except 
baptism  and  extreme  unction,  and  these  when  performed 
must  take  place  with  closed  doors.  The  principle  under- 
lying the  interdict  was  that  the  ruler  who  was  not  moved 
by  the  individual  excommunication  or  anathema  should 
be  coerced  to  heed  the  voice  of  the  Church  through  those 
under  him  ;  therefore  these  were  made  the  victims  of  the 
Church's  disciplinary  action  that  they  might  secure  the 
submission  of  the  prince. 

Worship  became  more  and  more  bound  to  liturgical 
forms.       The    Latin    language    in    the    West     and     the 
Greek    in    the    East    were    alone    allowed    to 
Worship.  be    used.      In    the    case    of  the    Slavonians, 

the  sermon  was  permitted  to  be  preached  in 
the  vernacular.*  The  liturgy  itself,  however,  continued 
to  be  enriched  by  the  addition  to  it  of  new  and  glowing 
contributions  in  the  form  of  hymns.  Rabanus  Maurus, 
already  named  as  a  noted  ecclesiastic  and  theologian, 
composed  Latin  hymns,  especially  the  Veni  Creator,  which. 
has  survived  to  the  present  day.  Notker  Balbulus 
(840-912)  introduced  an  innovation  in  the  sequence. 
Previously  the  sequence  was  a  mere  prolongation  of  the 
last  syllable  of  the  Allehc-ia  sung  between  the  reading  of 
the  Epistle  and  the  Gospel,  giving  time  by  the  prolonga- 
tion to  the  deacon  to  ascend  from  the  pulpit  to  the  organ 
loft  from  whence  he  was   to  chant  the  Gospel.     Notker 

*  Pope  John  VIII.,  is  the  reputed  originator  of  the  distinction. 
Greek  and  Latin,  he  decided,  should  be  used  in  addressing  God  in 
the  liturgy ;  but  barbarous  tongues  like  the  Slavonic  might  be  good 
enough  in  addressing  the  barbarians  in  preaching. 


154 


Church  history. 


changed  this  single  syllable  into  a  rhythmical  hymn. 
King  Robert  of  France  (970-1031),  son  of  Hugo  Capet 
was  also  skillful  in  the  writing  of  hymns 
Hyranoiogy.  ^ud  to  him  is  ascribcd  another  Latin  pro- 
duction that  has  come  down  to  modern  times 
— the  Vcni  Sande  Spiritus  (Come  Holy  Spirit). 

IMonasticism  received  a  new  impulse  and  developed 
into  new  forms.  About  760  Chrodegang,  bishop  of 
Mentz, imposed  canonic  life  upon  the  regular 
Monasticism.  clcrgy  of  his  diocesc.  This  was  modeled 
after  the  Rule  of  Benedict  of  Nursia  and  was 
soon  adopted  as  the  law  of  the  Frankish  Church  under 
the  name  Regula  Aquisgranensis  (816).  But  the  gen- 
eral decline  of  morals  affected  the  monastic  system, 
and  corruption  entered  here  also.  The  monasteries 
grew  wealthy  and  their  wealth  proved  an  irresistible 
temptation  to  the  covetous  to  enter  them  for  the  sake 
of  enjoying  or  administering  their  property.  Many 
laymen  even  sought  the  headship  of  monasteries  for 
the  material  gain  attached  to  them.  When  they  obtained 
possession  of  them  they  turned  them  practically  into 
feudal  castles,  bringing'  within  these  enclosures  their 
wives,  their  hounds  for  the  chase,  and  other  worldly  ac- 
companiments. 

In  the  midst  of  this  state  of  things  Benedict  of  Aniane 
(750-821)  appeared    as    a    reformer.       He  revised    the 
Rule  of  Benedict  of  Nursia  and  introduced  a 
Reforms.  stricter  discipline.     But  this  reform  was  local. 

"^"^'  In  the  tenth  century  another  reformation  was 

instituted  by  Berno  (927)  in  Burgundy  upon  the  lines 
set  by  Benedict  of  Aniane.  This  was  followed  up  more 
vigorously  by  Berno's  successor,  Odo  of  Clugny  (942), 
and  culminated  in  the  ascendancy  of  the  monastery 
of  Clugny  in  Burgundy  and  the  acceptance  of  its  plan 
as  a  model  by  a  system  of  monasteries  which  now 
constituted  the  "  Congregation  ''  of  Clugny.  This  was 
an  association  of  monasteries  holding  an  annual  meeting 
for  the  purpose  of  legislating  uniformly  for  the  whole 
circle  of  which  it  consisted.  In  the  twelfth  century  two 
thousand  monastic  communities  had  entered  the  congrega- 


LIFE  AND  MORALS  IN  THE  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH.         155 

tion.  Its  influence  in  France  was  great  and  wholesome. 
INIorals  were  perceptibly  improved  by  it.  Its  example 
was  followed  by  the  monks  of  the  Appenines  in  the  form- 
ation of  the  Camaldulensian  order  and  at  Vallombrosa 
by  the  order  of  the  Vallombrosans. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  EMPIRE  IN  CONFLICT. 

The  accession  of  Hildebrand  to  the  papal  throne  did 
not  so  much  usher  in  as  bring  to  its  highest  point  the  wave 

of  reformation  already  set  into  motion  more 
Accessionof  than  twcnty-fivc  years  before.  Hildebrand, 
jregory  .  ^^  ^^^  already  been  said,  was  the  friend  and 
counselor  of  the  popes,  and  practically  dictated  the 
policy  of  the  papacy  since  the  election  of  Leo.  IX.  in 
1048.  When  Alexander  II.  died  in  1073,  the  peo- 
ple demanded  his  elevation  to  the  office  which  all 
knew  he  had  previously  controlled.  He  was  reluctant 
to  come  into  the  foreground.  Physically  he  was  not  a 
strong  man.  His  intimate  relations  with  his  immediate 
predecessors  had  taught  him  the  difficulties  with  which 
he  would  be  surrounded.  His  first  action  was  to  ask 
the  consent  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  to  his  assumption 
of  the  papal  crown  (tiara).  Henry  readily  granted 
what  it  would  have  been  well-nigh  impossible  to  refuse. 
As  Gregory  VII.,  Hildebrand  was  now  ready  to  prosecute 
the  work  of  reform  to  its  completion. 

The  marriage  of  the  clergy,  simony,  and  investiture  by 
the  secular  princes   were  the  three  abuses  which  to  his 

mind  hindered  the  full  exercise  of  that  power 
Reforms.  which  belonged  to  the  Church.     Against  these 

therefore  he  directed  his  blows.  At  a  synod 
held  in  Rome  the  year  following  his  accession  (1074) 
he  reenacted  the  old  law  of  clerical  celibacy  which  had 
fallen  into  desuetude.  A  storm  of  opposition  arose  on 
the  part  of  the  clergy ;  but  Gregory  knew  how  to  excite 
the  feelings  of  the  common  people  against  the  married 
156 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  EMPIRE  IN  CONFLICT.  157 

priests  and  secure  the  permanency  of  the  law.  In 
1075  he  held  another  synod,  which  pronounced  against 
simony  and  lay  investiture,  or  the  installation  of  the 
bishops  into  their  ofBces  by  the  presentation  of  the  ring 
and  staff  by  the  prince  within  whose  dominions  they  were 
to  exercise  their  functions.  Such  investiture  was  for- 
bidden at  this  time  on  pain  of  excommunication. 

The    pope's    ideal  came   into   full  view  in  the  action 
against  investiture.     He    held  that    the    spiritual  world 

was  above  the  temporal,  and  therefore  should 
Ideals  of  not  only  be  independent  of  its  control,  but  on 

the  contrary,  should  dominate  the  temporal. 
The  end  he  aimed  at  was  a  theocracy  with  the  pope  as 
the  visible  representative  of  God.  If  the  saints  were  to 
be  judges  of  angels,  how  much  more  fittingly  might  they 
be  judges  of  secular  princes.  The  purification  of  the 
morals  of  the  clergy  and  the  extinction  of  simony  were 
simply  means  calculated  to  train  and  prepare  the 
hierarchy  for  the  supremacy  of  the  Church  over  the 
State. 

Henry  IV.  could  not  but  feel  that  the  blow  was  aimed 
at  his  own  power.     He  was  engaged,  at  the   time  the 

action  on  investiture  was  taken,  in  a  war  with 
Conflict  with      f^e  Saxons.     He  undertook  to  come    to  an 

and  Submission  i         .  i-  -^i      ^i  i.     ^  ^ 

of  Henry  IV.  Understanding  with  the  pope,  but  was  met 
with  the  threat  that  unless  he  heeded  the  voice 
of  the  Church  he  must  be  excommunicated.  Indignant 
at  this  attitude  he  summoned  a  synod  of  German  bishops 
at  Worms  and  caused  the  deposition  of  the  pope.  The 
answer  of  Gregory  to  this  measure  was  a  solemn  anathema, 
absolving  all  Henry's  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegi- 
ance. The  subject  princes  of  the  empire,  already  dis- 
satisfied with  Henry,  resolved  that,  unless  within  a  year 
he  should  have  this  anathema  removed,  the  imperial 
throne  should  be  declared  forfeited.  Henry  was  reduced 
to  straits.  He  sought  the  pope  as  a  penitent  at  Canossa 
in  January  1077  and  was  allowed  to  plead  for  forgiveness 
for  three  dnys  in  the  snows  of  winter  before  he  was 
granted  absolution. 

Meanwhile  the  German  princes   had   elected  Rudolph 


1^8  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  Suabia  to  the  imperial  throne.     Henry's  humiliation 
aoDeared  to  have  been  for  naught.      Enraged 

Rebellion  of  ^  ^^,  •       ^  c       cc    ■  ^\  ^ 

Henryand         at  this  tum  of  affairs,  the   emperor   now   ac- 
Deathofthe      cepted   the    alliance    of    the    Lombards,    and 

"ope.  ,  . ,        ^,  -1  1  1 

while  Gregory  remained  neutral,  conquered 
the  rebels,  and  on  being  again  anathematized,  set  up 
an  anti-pope  (Clement  HI.),  and  was  crowned  by  him 
(10S4).  Gregory  without  conceding  for  a  moment  that 
he  was  thwarted  withdrew  to  Salerno,  where  he  died  the 
following  year  (1085). 

The  successors  of  Gregory  could  do  no   more  than  in- 
sist  on  the  principles    he    had   laid  down.     Victor   IH. 

(1085-1087),  strictly  adhered  to  the  policy 
Successors  of     ^£    j^-^  predeccssor.      Urban  II.   was    called 

on  to  struggle  against  the  claims  of  the 
anti-pope  Clement,  but  made  the  papacy  the  center  of 
a  new  enthusiasm  by  broaching  the  idea  of  the  Crusades. 
Paschal  11.  (1099-1118),  pushed  Hildebrand's  ideas 
with  indiscriminate  zeal,  Henry  died  during  his  pontif- 
icate, and  it  was  only  five  years  after  this  event  that 
his  son  secured  the  removal  of  the  ban  and  his  inter- 
ment with  due  ecclesiastical  ceremony.  Henry  V.  was 
not,  however,  disposed  to  be  any  more  yielding  on  the 
question  of  investiture  than  his  father  had  been.  So  long 
as  Paschal  held  the  papacy  he  maintained  the  right  to 
inaugurate  bishops  into  their  offices.  Paschal  was  fol- 
lowed by  Gelasius  (1118-1119),  whose  reign  was  brief 
and  unhappy.  His  successor  Calixtus  II.  (1119-1124), 
backed  by  popular  clamor  for  peace,  succeeded  in  for- 
cing the  emperor  to  enter  on  an  agreement  known 
as  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (1122).  According  to 
the  terms  of  this  compact  the  emperor  gave  up  the 
rio-ht  of  investiture,  and  the  pope  conceded  the  right  of 
German  princes  to  superintend  the  election  of  prelates 
in  their  dominions. 

The   Concordat  of  Worms  was  confirmed  by  a  synod 

held  at  Rome  in  the  Lateran  palace,  hence  known  as  the 

First    Lateran    or    ninth    ecumenical    synod 

Gueiph  and       (122^).       Henry    died    soon   after    this    with- 

Ghibelline.  \'^       o!  J  1     i    •      ^i 

out  issue.     He  was  succeeded  in  the  empire 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  EMPIRE  IN  CONFLICT.  159 

l)y  Lothair  the  Saxon  (1125-1137).  Calixtus  was  fol- 
lowed in  the  papal  chair  by  Honorius  II.  (1124-1130), 
and  Innocent  II.  (1130-1143).  During  the  pontificate 
of  the  latter  the  empire  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  family  under  Conrad  III.  (1137-1152), 
and  with  Conrad  began  the  Guelph-Ghibelline  feud — 
a  quarrel  between  the  papal  (Guelph),  and  the  imperial 
(Ghibelline  or  Waibling)  factions — which  continued 
through  the  twelfth,  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 

But  another  influence  hostile  to  the  papacy  was  set  at 
work  about  the  same  time  by  Arnold  of  Brescia.  Arnold 
appeared  as  the  advocate  of  a  return  to  the 
Arnold  of  old    Roman    republican    system    in    political 

government,  and  to  the  apostolic  system 
of  pure  spirituality  in  the  Church.  He  taught  that 
the  clergy  should  give  up  their  earthly  possessions  and 
limit  themselves  to  spiritual  functions.  Under  his  lead 
a  republic  was  actually  proclaimed  at  Rome  (1143), 
though  his  views  had  been  condemned  and  he  had  been 
himself  sentenced  to  silence  by  the  Second  Lateran  or 
tenth  ecumenical  council  1139.  The  popes  who  suc- 
ceeded Innocent  II.  appeared  to  be  impotent  against 
the  popular  favor  shown  Arnold.  He  boldly  denounced 
them  as  false  shepherds.  When,  however,  Hadrian 
IV.  (11 54-1 159),  previously  an  English  monk  (Nich- 
olas Breakspeare),  was  elected  to  the  papacy,  he  re- 
duced the  people  to  submission  by  placing  Rome  under 
an  interdict.  Arnold  was  driven  from  the  city,  and  after- 
wards seized  by  Frederick  Barbarossa,  who  delivered  him 
to  his  enemies.      He  was  put  to  death  at  Rome  in  1155. 

But  Hadrian  saw  himself  presently  confronted  by  a 
more  formidable  enemy  than  Arnold  of  Brescia.  Con- 
rad was  succeeded  in  the  empire  by  Frederick 

Conflict  with      Barbarossa     (11^2-1100),    a    man     of    corn- 
Frederick  ,.  i-ij  £*i 
Barbarossa.        manding  personahty  and    an    enemy    or    the 

hierarchy.     Though   living  at  peace  with   the 

pope    for    a   time,    he   was  led  in   11 58    to  hold   a  diet 

on  the  Plain  of  Roncaglia  and  proclaim  the  rights  of  the 

empire,  formally  recording  them   through  certain  jurists 

of  Bologna.     The  pope  was  in   the  act  of  preparing  an, 


i6o  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

anathema  on  the  emperor  when  he  died.  His  successor 
Alexander  III.  (1159-1181)  published  the  anathema. 
The  war  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  now  broke  out 
in  earnest.  Frederick  marched  into  Rome  with  the  anti- 
pope  Victor  IV.  •,  but  a  fever  paralyzed  his  army,  and  he 
saw  himself  compelled  to  return  into  Germany  without 
having  pressed  fully  the  advantage  he  had  gained.  Later, 
in  iiyGat  Legnano,  he  suffered  a  decisive  defeat  and  rec- 
ognized Alexander  as  pope. 

Another  conflict  in  which  the  papal  and  secular  powers 
engaged,  also  contributing  to  the  exaltation  of  the  papacy, 
was  that   between    the    Roman    Church    and 
Henry  II., and   i^^jng    Henry    II.    of    England.     The    English 
BeS^^  Church    had   developed   a  semi-independence 

against  which  Hildebrand's  effort  seemed  to 
prove  unavailing.  Alexander  set  himself  to  accomplish 
what  Gregory  had  failed  to  do.  Henry,  to  oppose  the 
pope's  efforts  the  more  effectually,  secured  the  appoint- 
ment of  his  chancellor  Thomas  a  Becket,  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury.  A  Becket,  however,  was  no 
sooner  lifted  to  the  high  office  than  he  developed  extreme 
devotion  to  the  papacy.  He  stood  in  the  way  of  the  re- 
forms contemplated  by  the  king.  The  king  having 
expressed  his  impatience  with  this  attitude,  h.  Becket  was 
assassinated  and  the  reaction  which  followed  this  crime 
cost  Henry  a  bitter  humiliation  and  the  abandonment  of 
his  plans. 

While  gaining  power  externally,  Alexander  also  con- 
solidated the  internal  order  of  the  Church.  At  the  Third 
Lateran,  eleventh  ecumenical  council  (11 79), 
Innocent  III.  he  sccurcd  the  passage  of  rules  governing 
the  election  of  popes.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander,  little  was  done  by  his  successors  until  the 
accession  of  Innocent  III.  Frederick  was  drowned  while 
crossing  a  stream  in  Palestine  during  the  third  crusade. 
His  son  Henry  VI.  (i  191-1 197)  did  not  survive  to  the 
time  of  Innocent  III.  (1198-12 16).  Thus  when  Innocent 
ascended  the  papal  throne,  there  appeared  to  be  no 
strong  Ghibelline  to  thwart  his  plans  or  resist  his  claims. 
He  consequently  wielded  an  almost  absolute  authority 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  EMPIRE  IN  CONFLICT.  i6i 

and  brought  the  papal  power  to  its  zenith.  He  made 
his  voice  heard  in  the  public  affairs  of  Europe.  In  Ger- 
many the  succession  to  the  throne  was  disputed  by  Otto 
of  Brunswick  and  Philip  of  Hohenstaufen,  the  uncle  and 
natural  guardian  of  the  infant  son  of  Henry  VI.  The 
pope  declared  for  Otto,  on  condition  of  the  surrender  of 
the  imperial  prerogatives  reserved  by  the  Concordat  of 
Worms.  But  when  Otto,  proving  false  to  his  promise  to 
relinquish  these  prerogatives,  attempted  to  exercise  them, 
Innocent  excommunicated  and  deposed  him  and  placed 
the  rightful  heir,  Frederick  II.,  in  his  place. 
Frederick  II.  In  France  the  king,  Philip  Augustus,  had  put 
away  his  wife,  Ingeburga,  and  married  Agnes. 
The  pope  by  the  application  of  the  interdict,  compelled 
him  to  take  back  his  first  and  lawful  wife.  In  England 
a  dispute  arose  as  to  the  election  of  an  archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  The  matter  was  referred  to  the  pope.  He 
took  advantage  of  the  occasion  to  introduce  his  friend 
Stephen  Langton  into  the  vacant  archbishopric,  and  when 
king  John  declined  to  recognize  Langton,  the  pope  again 
by  the  use  of  the  interdict  forced  the  king  to  submission. 
It  was  upon  this  occasion  that  the  nobles  rose  up  against 
John,  and  wrested  from  him  the  Magna  Charta — since 
then  "the  charter  of  the  nation." 

One  of  the  last  acts  of  Innocent,  was  the  convocation 
of  a  council.  This  was  the  Fourth  Lateran  or  twelfth 
ecumenical  council  (12 15).  It  advised  the  reconquest 
of  the  Holy  Land,  the  extermination  of  heresy,  and  re- 
forms in  the  Church. 

The  death  of  Innocent  coincides  with  the  attainment 
of  his  majority  by  Frederick  II.  (1212-1250).  Hon- 
orius  III.  (1216-1227)  who  took  up  the  papal 
Honorius  III.  office  aftCF  Innocent,  was  a  man  of  mild  tem- 
Fi?th"crasade.  pcramcnt.  He  was  satisfied  with  small  con- 
cessions and  promises  of  crusades  by  Frederick. 
The  emperor,  however,  delayed  the  fulfillment  of  his 
promise,  satisfying  the  pope  that  he  had  good  reasons  for 
so  doing.  But  Honorius  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  IX. 
(1227-1241),  a  nephew  of  Innocent  III.  and  a  man 
of  inflexible  resolution  as  well  as  ascetic  zeal.     Frederick 


1 62  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

saw  himself  obliged  to  set  sail  for  the  Holy  Land,  but 
returned  after  three  days  on  the  pretense  of  an  epidemic 
in  his  fleet.  The  pope  excommunicated  him.  As  if  to 
prove  the  injustice  of  this  measure,  Frederick  started  on 
his  crusade  the  following  year  without  having  taken  pains 
to  remove  the  ban.  The  fame  of  his  dispute  with  the  pope 
and  of  his  excommunication  preceded  him,  and  on  land- 
ing, he  found  himself  surrounded  by  Christians  who 
would  have  nothing  to  do  with  him,  and  Saracens  whom 
he  must  treat  as  enemies.  In  spite  of  the  difficulty  of 
the  situation,  he  managed  to  exact  some  concessions 
from  the  Sultan,  made  a  ten  years'  truce  and  returned  to 
Europe  to  prosecute  the  feud  with  the  pope.  Here  in 
the  course  of  a  short  time  he  achieved  a  victory  clear 
enough  to  give  him  the  power  of  dictating  for  Sicily 
the  Code  of  Vinea  as  the  law  regulating  the  relations 
of  Church  and  State.  According  to  this  compact,  the 
authority  of  the  Church  should  be  subordinate  to  that  of 
the  State,  though  heretics  were  to  be  delivered  over  to 
the  Church  for  discipline. 

But  the  feud  broke  out  afresh  in  1239,  when  the  pope 
anathematized  the  emperor  once  more  and  released  his 
subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  him. 
Conflict  Re-  "pj^g  emperor  in  return  accused  the  pope  of 
inclining  to  the  heresy  of  the  Catharists. 
Gregory  charged  him  with  infidelity  and  sympathy  with 
the  Saracens.  Frederick  once  more  marched  against 
Rome.  The  pope  called  a  council  but  before  it  met  he 
died.  His  successor  Innocent  IV.  (1241-1254)  now 
took  up  and  continued  the  warfare,  denouncing  the 
emperor  at  the  council  of  Lyons  (1245)  as  a  heretic  and 
robber.  Frederick  met  with  numerous  reverses  and  died 
in  the  midst  of  them. 

His  son  Conrad  IV.  was  unequal  to  the   great  conflict. 

He  carried  on    the  struggle   only  for  a  short  time  (1250- 

1254).     With   his  death  the  house  of  Hohen- 

Faiiofthe         staufcn    may   be    said    to   have    come    to    its 

Hohenstauien.  -i  ^  i  •        i   •  i    ^     •         i 

end.  Conradm,  his  successor,  was  detained 
in  Suabia  for  a  time,  and  as  he  came  forward  to  claim 
his  ancestral  heritage  he  was  seized  and  put  to  death  in 
1268  by  the  Guelphs. 


THE  PAPACY  AND  THE  EMPIRE  IN  CONFLICT.  163 

It  was    at  this  time  that  Louis  IX.  of  France  set  forth 
in   a  document   called   the   Pragmatic  Sanction    the   rela- 
tions  of  the  Church  and  State  in  his  own  do- 
Louisix.  and    niaius.     Bv  the  tcrms  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 

the  Pragmatic        .  -'  .,        "   .         , 

Sanction.  tion,  I'rance  was  to  pay  no  tribute  m  the  form 

of  money  to  the  pope,  nor  should  any  funds  be 
raised  in  the  realm,  except  by  consent  of  the  king  and  peo- 
ple. Further  the  bishops  of  the  French  Church  were  to  be 
chosen  freely  by  the  native  clergy,  and  the  prelates  and 
patrons  should  enjoy  the  revenues  of  the  Church. 

From    1268  to   127 1    there   was  a  vacancy  in  the   papal 

throne.     This  was  filled  by  the   election  of  Gregory  X. 

(1271-1276).     Gregory  had    been  a  crusader 

Gregory  X         with   Edward    of  England.     With    the    intent 

The  Hapsburgs.     ^  ,.      .  ,  ^.  . 

of  enlistmg  the  empire  m  another  crusade 
he  assisted  in  its  reorganization  under  a  new  dynasty. 
Thus  after  an  interregnum  of  twenty  years  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg  was  made  emperor  (1273).  The  dynasty,  of 
which  Rudolph  was  the  first,  by  a  wise  subordination  to  the 
popes  retained  hold  of  the  empire  for  a  long  period. 

After  reorganizing  the  empire,  the  next  care  of  the  pope 
was  to  rouse  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Church  for  a  crusade. 
To  this  end  he  called  an  ecumenical  council — the  four- 
teenth, which  met  at  Lyons  and  is  also  known  as  the  Sec- 
ond of  Lyons  (1274).  Two  other  subjects  were  put  before 
the  council  besides  the  raising  of  means  for  the  recovery  of 
the  Holy  Land.  These  were  the  reunion  of  Eastern  and 
Western  Christendom,  and  the  reform  of  morals.  The 
results  were  equally  disappointing  in  all. 

Though  Gregory's  efforts  gave  the  papacy  some  of  the 
zest  which  characterized  it  under  his  predecessors,  they 

were  not  followed  up  by  those  who  came  after 
Martin  TV.        him.     In   1281    Martin   IV.   (1281-128O    was 

Sicilian  Vespers.       •        ,    .       . ,  tt  t-  i 

raised  to  the  papacy.  He  was  a  Frenchman 
and  the  French  influence  became  supreme  with  him. 
But  the  Sicilians,  who  had  been  under  the  power  of  the 
French  for  some  time  previously,  unable  longer  to  endure 
the  yoke,  broke  out  in  rebellion,  and,  on  Easter  Monday, 
1282,  at  the  ringing  of  the  vesper  bells,  occurred  the 
massacre  of  all  the  French  on  the  island,  an  event  known 
in  history  as  the  Sicilian  Vespers. 


164  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  last  of  the  popes  of  this  period  was  Celestine  V. 
previously   a  hermit  (1294).     It  was  soon   felt,  however, 

that  he  was  not  competent  to  administer  the 
Celestine  V.      affairs  of  so  important  an    office  as  the  papal, 

and  he  was  induced  by  Cardinal  Cajetan  to  re- 
sign. To  prevent  further  trouble  he  was  imprisoned.  He 
died  two  years  later.  Cajetan  himself  was  made  his  suc- 
cessor as  Boniface  VIII.  (i 294-1303). 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   CRUSADES.     WARS   OF   THE   CHURCH    AGAINST 
INFIDELS   AND   HERETICS. 

Palestine  fell   under  the  dominion  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans before  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century.     European 
Christendom     did    not,     however,    realize    at 
Mohammedan    once  the  significance   of  this  fact.     The  rela- 

Control  of  .  ,      ^      =        .  ,      ,        tt     ,       -r 

Palestine.  tiOHS  between  It  and  the  Hol}^  Land  were  not 

close  and  direct.  But  in  the  course  of  the 
Middle  Ages  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Sepulcher  became 
very  common,  and  acquired  a  peculiar  meaning  as  merito- 
rious works  to  be  laid  to  one's  account,  and  serving  to 
counterbalance  his  sins.  They  grew  more  frequent  to- 
wards the  end -of  the  tenth  century,  as  the  belief  in  the 
approaching  end  of  the  world  gained  ground.  The  Mo- 
hammedans at  first  favored  and  protected  the  pilgrims, 
but  as  they  became  more  numerous,  they  changed  their 
attitude  and  began  to  annoy  them.  European  Christen- 
dom now  came  to  realize  that  it  was  a  disgrace  to  allow 
the  holy  place  to  continue  under  infidel  rule,  and  to  en- 
tertain the  idea  of  recovering  it.  Hildebrand  himself 
was  anxious  to  move  in  that  direction,  but  was  prevented 
by  his  struggle  with  the  empire.  One  of  his  successors, 
Urban  II.,  was  appealed  to  by  the  emperor  of  the  East, 
Alexis  Comnenus,  and  urged,  at  the  council  at  Clermont 
(1095),  a  war  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  under 
the  standard  of  the  cross.  The  impression  made  by  his 
address  was  profound.  The  audience  responded,  "Z>(?//'5' 
lo  vult  "  (God  wills  it),  and  the  assembled  prelates  car- 
ried the  enthusiasm  to  their  homes. 

The    agitation    soon    brought  forth    fruit.       Peter    the 
Hermit  and  Walter  the  Penniless  went  about  organizing 

165 


l66  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  first   expedition    against  the  Mohammedans.     Peter, 
having  gathered  an  undisciplined  horde,  put 
H^rmit.^  himself  at  its  head  and   started  for  the  East, 

The  first  ^yt  was  soou  Compelled,  by  lack  of  personal  fit- 

ness, to  relinquish  the  lead,  while  his  followers 
were  cut  down  by  the  Turks  in  Bulgaria.  Another  host 
of  200,000  perished  after  getting  as  far  as  Hungary. 
Finally  an  army  of  80,000  under  Godfrey  de  Bouillon, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  passed  through  Constantinople,  increas- 
ing in  numbers  as  it  went,  took  Edessa  and  Antioch, 
entered  Jerusalem  in  1099,  and  made  Godfrey  king. 

The  results  of  this  event  were  manifold  and  promised 
a  mighty  revolution  in  the  East.     First  of  all,  the  success 
of  the  Christian  warriors  stimulated  in  them 
Consequences,    thg  desire  for  further  aggressive  steps  against 
the  Mohammedans.      The  plan    of   a  march 
against  Bagdad  was  conceived,  and  awaited  reinforcements 
from  Europe  in   order  to   be  practically   tried.     A  Latin 
patriarchate  was  established  in  connection  with  the  Latin 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem.     Finally,  in  order  to  sustain  the 
new   kingdom,  new  orders  of  knights  were  established. 
One  order  had  already  existed  in  Palestine  for  fifty  years, 
having  as  its  object  the  entertainment  and  protection  of 
pilgrims.     This  was  the  Order  of  the  Knights 
orffrs'^  of    St.     John,    also    called    Hospitalers,    or 

Brethren  of  the  Hospital,  from  the  name  of 
their  house,  which  was  designated  the  Hospital  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  Two  new  orders  were  now  organized,  viz. 
the  order  of  the  Templars  (11 18),  so  called  from  the  loca- 
tion of  their  house  by  the  side  of  the  temple  in  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  German,  or  Teutonic  Knights,  founded 
by  citizens  of  Bremen  and  Liibeck  (1190),  as  a  hospital. 
These  orders,  recruited  from  among  the  ranks  of  the 
bold  and  adventurous,  were  destined  to  bring  to  view  a 
new  aspect  of  the  spirit  of  chivalry. 

But  the  Latin  kingdom  in  the  Holy  Land  was  weakened 
by  constant  losses,  and,  in  spite  of  accessions,  found   it- 
self hard  pressed  by  the  Mohammedans.      To 
Second  Crusade,  avert  the  calamity  of  its  fall  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  went  through  Europe  preaching  a  second 


WARS  OF  THE  CHURCH  AGAINST  INFIDELS  AND  HERETICS.  167 

crusade  (1147).  Louis  VII.  of  France  and  Conrad 
III.  of  Germany  led  a  vast  host  against  the  Saracens, 
aiming  to  take  Damascus  and  make  it  the  bulwark  of  the 
Latin  kingdom.  But  dissensions  among  the  crusaders, 
and  treachery,  made  the  expedition  a  disastrous  failure. 

In  A.  D.  1 187  Saladdin,  the  king  of  the  Saracens,  once 
more  took  possession  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.     Dissensions 

were  at  once  set  aside  in  Europe  when  this 
Third  Crusade,  became  known,  and  the  three  most  prominent 

potentates  of  Christendom,  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion  of  England,  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  and  Fred- 
erick Barbarossaof  the  empire,  united  in  the  most  brilliant 
of  the  crusades.  But  it  seemed  impossible  for  them  to 
repress  jealousies  and  quarrels  for  any  length  of  time. 
Moreover,  Saladdin,  against  whom  they  came,  was  a  man 
of  genius,  and  thus  the  result  of  the  expedition  was  that, 
after  securing  freedom  for  Christians  from  taxation  and 
from  molestation  in  visiting  the  holy  city,  they  dis- 
persed. 

A  fourth   expedition  was  organized  in  1204,  but  was 
diverted  by  Dandolo,   doge    of   Venice,    into  an    attack 

on  the  Byzantine  empire.  Constantinople  was 
FourthCrusade.  taken  by  the  crusaders,  and  a   Latin  empire 

founded  lasting  nearly  half  a  century. 
The  fifth  of  the  crusades  was  led   by  Frederick  II. 
(1229),  under  very  inauspicious  circumstances.      He  had 

promised  to  lead  this  crusade,  but  as  he  de- 
Fifth  Crusade,    layed  to  perform  his  promise,  having  started 

and  returned  after  a  three  days'  sail,  on 
the  ground  of  an  epidemic  in  his  fleet,  the  pope  excommu- 
nicated him.  When  he  again  led  the  crusade,  this  excom- 
munication hampered  him  so  that  he  was  satisfied  to 
secure  by  negotiations  the  cession  of  Bethlehem  and  Naz- 
areth and  a  ten  years'  truce,  and  returned  to  Europe. 

In    1249    Louis  IX.  of  France  directed   a    sixth    cru- 
sade against  Egypt  as  a  way  of  approach  into  the  Holy 

Land.  He  succeeded  so  far  as  to  occupy 
i'ev'e^n^h'^  Damietta,  but  was  presently  taken  prisoner  and 

Crusades.  purchased  his  freedom   from  the  Mamelukes 

for  800,000  byzantines.     Finally,   the  last  of 


i68  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  crusades  against  the  Mohammedans  was  led,  like  the 
sixth,  by  Louis  IX.  This  time  Louis  made  Tunis  his 
point  of  attack.  But  a  pestilence  broke  out  in  his  camp 
and  carried  off  half  of  his  army.  He  himself  died  during 
the  campaign,  and  with  him  the  active  expression  of  cru- 
sading zeal  came  to  an  end. 

The  crusades  were  neither  an  unmixed  evil  nor  a  pure 
benefit  to  the  Church  and  the  world.  While  much  fanat- 
icism was  evolved  by  them,  and  much  waste 
Good  and  ^nd  misery  caused,  there  accrued,  on  the  other 
hand,  some  signal  advantages.  The  ills  of  the 
feudal  system  were  mitigated  in  a  measure.  A  common 
aim  and  companionship  among  strangers  united  those 
who  before  were  separated  and  cherished  enmity  towards 
one  another.  The  superfluous  energy  of  adventurous 
spirits  was  employed,  and  thus,  as  Bernard  said,  "The 
State  was  no  less  benefited  in  losing  the  warriors  than  the 
Church  in  gaining  them."  Moreover,  lessons  in  organ- 
ization and  military  discipline  were  learned  that  could 
not  fail  of  being  useful  later.  And,  finally,  the  spirit  of 
commerce  and  intercourse  was  stimulated,  and  the  general 
stagnation  of  Europe  was  broken  up. 

Another  undertaking  of  the  Church,  commonly  called  a 

crusade,  was  the  persecution  of  the  sect  of  the  Cathari,  in 

the  south  of  France  (1208-12 13).     These  are 

Albigensian       ^Iso  Called  Albigcnscs,  from    the  city  Albi  in 

Crusade  o  '  ^  j 

which  with  its  vicinity,  they  flourished.  They 
were  a  sect  of  dualists,  who  also  insisted  on  purity  of  life. 
Their  cause  was  espoused  by  Raymond  VL,  count  of  Tou- 
louse. The  legate  of  the  pope,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  under- 
taking to  exercise  civil  authority  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  Raymond,  came  in  conflict  with  him.  When,  later,  he 
was  assassinated,  this  was  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  Albi- 
genses  ;  Raymond  himself  was  accused  of  complicity  in 
the  crime,  and  the  papal  force  under  Arnold  of  Citeaux 
and  Simon  de  Montfort  invaded  the  region  inhabited  by 
the  Albigensians  and  waged  a  bloody  and  cruel  war  on 
them. 

Quite  different  was  the  conflict  of  the  Church  with  the 
Waldenses.     These  took  their  name  from  Peter  Waldo, 


WARS  OF  THE  CHURCH  AGAINST  INFIDELS  AND  HERETICS.    1 69 

of  Lyons,  who  came  out  as  a  preacher  of  a  return  to  the 
pure  teaching  of  Scripture,  in  the  middle  of  the 
Waldensians.  twelfth  century.  In  accordance  with  this  funda- 
mental principle,  he  and  his  followers  taught 
that  there  was  no  purgatory,  that  the  Church  was  not  in- 
fallible, that  laymen  were  entitled  to  preach,  and  that  the 
selling  of  one's  goods  and  the  distribution  of  the  proceeds 
to  the  poor  was  an  act  of  Christian  consecration.  Waldo 
himself  pursued  this  course. 

The  Waldensians  had  no  intention  of  leaving  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  They  formed  a  society  within  the  Church, 
and  hoped  to  bring  about  its  reformation  from  within. 
The  archbishop  of  Lyons  at  first,  and  Pope  Alexander 
III,  later  (1179),  declared  against  them.  They  were 
excommunicated  and  persecuted,  and  withdrew  into  the 
fastnesses  of  Piedmont  in  Italy.  Here  they  succeeded  in 
evading  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  continued  to  exist 
through  the  following  centuries. 

Another  movement  away  from  the  beliefs  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church  was  headed  by  Peter  de  Bruys  about  11 10, 
in  the  provinces  of  Languedoc  and  Provence 
Petrobrus-  inFrancc.  Peter's  followers  were  called  after 
him  Petrobrussians.  Their  distinctive  tenets 
as  far  as  known  were  :  (i)  that  baptism  should  be  admin- 
istered to  adult  persons  ;  (2)  that  the  elements  in  the 
Lord's  Supper  are  and  remain  material,  and  serve  only  as 
signs  or  emblems  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
(3)  that  prayers,  sacrifices,  and  good  works  do  not  avail 
for  the  dead  ;  and  (4)  that  church  buildings,  images,  and 
crosses  are  unnecessary  in  the  worship  of  God. 

The  Eastern  Church  was  disturbed  at  this  time  by  a 
sect  which  made  its  first  appearance  in  Bulgaria.  This 
was  the  sect  of  the  Bogomiles  (Friends  of 
Bogomiies.  God).  They  held  that  the  firstborn  of  God 
was  a  superhuman  being  called  Satanael. 
This  being  had  created  the  world  ;  but  being  moved  to 
pride,  he  rebelled  against  the  Father,  and  was  rejected 
with  a  multitude  of  angels  whom  he  had  induced  to  fol- 
low himself.  With  this  theological  basis  the  sect  com- 
bined teachings  regarding  the  Church  which  were  hostile 


1^0  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

to  its  authority,  and  denied  the  virtue  alleged  to  exist  in 
its  ministry  and  sacraments.  These  teachings  were  dis- 
seminated both  in  the  East  and  the  West,  and  the  under- 
mining of  Church  authority  by  them  was  resented  and 
the  sect  was  proscribed  and  persecuted. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MONASTICISM     AND      SCHOLASTICISM.         LEARNING 
AND   PIETY. 

MoNASTiciSM    made    marked     advances    during    the 

Middle  Ages.     As  the  towns  began  to  exhibit  the  spirit  of 

independence  the   monastic   orders  emulated 

Spirit  of  In-       their  example.     They  chose  their  own  abbots, 

epen  ence.  nianagcd  their  own  estates,  and  generally  broke 
loose  from  episcopal  control.  This  independence  of  the 
bishops  was  not  inconsistent  but  rather  hopeful  to  the 
idea  of  direct  subordination  to  the  papacy,  and  for  this 
reason  the  popes  fostered  it.  Among  other  privileges 
granted  by  the  papacy  to  the  monasteries  were  the  fol- 
lowing :  They  were  exempted  from  the  payment  of  tithes  ; 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  legates  ;  from  excommunication 
by  any  one  lower  than  the  pope  ;  from  the  interdict  over 
the  regions  where  they  were  situated.  Abbots  were  per- 
mitted to  wear  the  episcopal  ring  and  gloves.  They  need 
not  attend  councils  if  not  summoned  by  the  pope.  The 
abbots  of  Clugny  and  Vendome  were  created  cardinals. 
These  privileges  and  the  influence  of  great  men  like  Hilde- 
brand  elevated  the  monastic  system  appreciably. 

Of  new  orders  founded,  the  Cistercian  deserves  to  be 

named  first.     Its   name  is  derived   from    Cistercium   (Ci- 

teaux),  and  it  was  established  by  Robert  (1098), 

New  Orders.      ^s  a  protcst  against  the  corruptions  of  the  idea 

IS  ercian.  ^^  povcrty  in  Cluguy.  The  order  became 
eminent  because  of  the  connection  with  it  of  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  (1113-1153).  Bernard  was  a  man  of  fervent 
piety,  a  mystic,  and  therefore  an  opponent  of  rationalistic 

171 


172 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


tendencies  just  coming  to  the  surface,  eloquent  and  en- 
thusiastic and  devoted  to  nionasticism,  which,  for  these 
reasons,  could  not  but  feel  the  impulse  of  his  presence  in 
its  midst. 

Another  order  was  founded  at  Fontevraud  by  Robert  of 

Ar   !.  sel  (iioo)  for  men  and  women.     Still  another  order 

which  arose   to  promise    and  power  was   that 

Other  Orders,     of  the  Carthusiaus,  at  Chartreuse.     This  was 

Carthusians.  ii-i,i        -r, 

established  by  Bruno  of  Cologne  (1086),  and 
was  distinguished  for  the  rigidity  of  its  discipline  and  for 
insistence  on  devotional  and  spiritual  exercise.  Besides 
these  a  number  of  minor  orders  arose,  having  specific  ob- 
jects as  their  distinctive  features.  The  order  of  St.  An- 
thony was  founded  for  the  relief  of  the  sick.  The  Trini- 
tarians were  organized  for  the  purpose  of  redeeming 
Christian  slaves,  and  purchased  a  multitude  who  had 
been  unfortunate  enough  to  be  captured  and  carried  ofif 
into  Morocco.  The  Premonstrants  at  Premontre' devoted 
themselves  to  the  idea  of  poverty,  though  this  idea  was 
supposed  to  be  the  basis  of  almost  all  monastic  orders. 
The  multiplication  of  these  orders  led  the  Fourth  La- 
teran  council  (1215),  at  the  suggestion  of  Innocent  III.,  to 

forbid  the  formation  of  any  more  new  ones. 
The  Mendicants. But  scarccly  had  the  action  been  taken  before 

Innocent  saw  himself  forced  to  make  an 
exception  of  the  case  of  the  Mendicants.  Clearly  there 
was  a  new  idea  in  these.  Previously,  monks  had  with- 
drawn from  the  world  and  through  penitence,  prayer  and 
self-mortification,  had  sought  salvation  for  themselves ; 
the  Mendicants  reversed  this  course  and  set  out  to  go 
into  the  world  and  save  others  by  self-denying  labors. 

There  were  two  orders  of  Mendicants.     The  Domini- 
can   order    was  conceived  by    Dominic  Guzman   (1170- 

1221),  a  Spanish  priest.  The  spread  of  Albi- 
Dominican         orensianism    in   the  south   of   France  and  the 

inability  of  the  clergy  and  the  older  orders  of 
monks  to  deal  with  it  disturbed  Dominic.  Even  the 
crusade  against  the  heretics  did  not  seem  to  have  the 
desired  effect.  He  went  to  Rome  in  12 15  and  submitted 
to  the  pope  his   plan   of  a   special  order   of  Preaching 


MONASTICISM  AND  SCHOLASTICISM.  173 

Brothers,  who  should  traverse  the  regions  infected  with 
heresy  and  induce  the  heretics  to  return  to  the  CathoHc 
fold.  The  plan  was  approved  and  subsequently  the  rule 
of  poverty  put  into  it. 

The  Franciscans  were  organized  by  Francis  Bernar- 
done  (i  182-1226)  of  Assisi.  As  a  youth  Francis  had 
been  gay  and  worldly.  Converted  in  a  seri- 
Franciscau  qus  illncss,  he  Subsequently  learned  of  the 
essence  of  the  gospel  as  self-denial  and 
absolute  trust  in  the  providing  care  of  God.  He,  too, 
like  Dominic,  went  to  Rome,  in  12 15,  with  a  plan  of  an 
order  based  upon  his  discovery  of  self-denial  and  absolute 
trust.  Innocent  approved  this  plan  also,  and  the  Francis- 
cans went  forth  as  the  Begging  Brothers. 

The  growth  of  the  Mendicant  orders  was  something 
phenomenal.  By  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
they  had  more  than  8,000  houses  in  the  Fran- 
Growth  of  the  ciscan  system  alone.  Moreover,  their  power 
Orders""  also  grcw  SO  that  soon  they  occupied  the  fore- 
most places  in  the  universities  and  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  the  councils  of  the  Church.  Among 
the  Franciscans  there  appeared  quite  early  a  class  of  more 
zealous  brothers,  whose  fervid  mysticism  bordered  on  fa- 
naticism. They  began  to  teach  poverty,  not  as  a  voluntary 
condition,  to  be  assumed  by  members  of  the  privileged 
Mendicant  orders,  but  as  the  only  normal  natural  condi- 
tion, and  the  holding  of  possessions,  on  the  contrary,  as 
a  sin  in  itself.  They  also  predicted  the  speedy  fall  of  the 
Church  as  an  institution.  These  were  the  Minorites,  or 
Fraticelli,  who,  in  the  following  period,  were  persecuted 
as  heretics  for  the  views  they  held. 

The  Church  was  undoubtedly  the  repository  and  patron 
of  learning  and  education  through  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
founded  schools  in  connection  with  cathedrals 
The  Univer-  ^ud  cloisters,  and  stimulated  study  by  open- 
ing up  the  field  of  the  patristic  writings  to 
scholars.  At  the  same  time  the  legislation  of  the  Church 
had  increased  in  bulk  and  intricacy  so  as  to  require  spe- 
cial attention.  Thus  the  schools  began  to  concern  them- 
selves with  the  problems  of  theology  and  canon  law,  and 


1^4  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

developed  into  universities.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  universities  are  already  found  fully 
equipped.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  their  foundation 
dates  back  to  the  middle  part,  if  not  to  the  beginning, 
of  the  twelfth.  Bologna  became  the  seat  of  a  university 
where  canon  law  was  specially  studied,  while  Paris  and 
Oxford  appear  to  have  attracted  students  of  theology  and 
dialectics. 

A  new  source  of  stimulus  appears  at  the  same  time  in 
the  Church   in   the  form   of  oriental  Arabic  and   Jewish 

philosophy.  The  Arabs  became  acquainted 
Arabic  and  ^Jth  the  works  of  Aristotlc  and  adopted  his 
toteiianitm''      systcm,  mixed   with   Neo-Platonic  ideas,  and 

modified  into  consistency  with  the  religion  of 
Mohammed.  Two  forms  of  Arabian  Aristotelianism  de- 
veloped—one in  the  East  worked  out  by  Avicenna  of 
Bokhara  (980-1037),  and  the  other  in  the  West  by 
Avarrhoes  of  Cordova  (11 26-1 198).  The  Jews  also 
became  acquainted  with  Aristotle,  no  doubt  led  by  the 
Arabs  in  the  East,  and  a  third  form  of  Semitic  Aristotel- 
ianism appeared,  made  up  of  Jewish  thought  and  Aris- 
totelian philosophy.  Solomon  ben  Gabirol  and  Moses 
Maimonides  stand  as  the  representatives  of  this  system. 
All  of  these  now  came  in  contact  with  Christianity  through 
the  Moors  and  Jews  of  Spain,  and  percolated  into  the 
schools.  The  Christians  began  to  study  Aristotle  directly 
in  the  Greek,  and  yielded  to  his  influence  so  far  as  to  use 
his  method. 

The  first  public  occasion   on  which   use  was  made  of 
Aristotle's  method  in  the   interests  of  Christian  theology 

was  the  trial  of  Berengarius  at  the  council 
Anseim.  of   Tours  (1054) ;    from    that    date    its  influ- 

c  oasticism.  ^^^^  increased  until  it  seemed  to  dominate 
all  thought  and  resulted  in  Scholasticism.  One  of  the 
earliest  to  adopt  the  new  method  was  Anseim  of  Canter- 
bury (1033-1109),  called  by  Milman  "The  real  parent 
of  mediaeval  theology,"  and  by  others,  "  The  father 
of  systematic  theology,"  and  "The  Augustine  of  the 
Middle  Ages."  Anseim  was  not  only  a  keen  dialectician, 
but  also  a  man  of  devout  spirit,  and  a  searcher  for  the 


MONASTICISM  AND  SCHOLASTICISM.  175 

truth.  He  rendered  service  to  the  cause  of  theology  in 
several  particulars.  First,  he  elaborated  the  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God,  which  bears  his  name  ;  secondly, 
he  vindicated  Realism  against  Roscellinus  and  the  Nom- 
inalists ;  and  thirdly,  he  elaborated  the  theory  of  the 
atonement,  which  has  been  recognized  by  the  Church 
since  his  day  as  the  most  satisfactory  exposition  of  the 
Scriptural  teaching  on  the  subject.  This  theory,  known 
sometimes  as  the  Anselmic  theory  of  the  atonement,  is 
found  in  the  Cur  Deus  Homo,  and  grounds  tlie  saving 
work  of  Christ  in  the  divine  justice.  One  of  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  scholastics  was  Peter  Abelard  (1079- 
1142).  From  his  first  appearance  in  the  circle  of  medie- 
val scholars  Abelard  displayed  those  characteristics 
which  made  his  subsequent  career  so  chequered  and 
stormy.  Gifted  with  exceptional  talents  himself,  he  was 
impatient  with  mediocrity,  not  only  in  his  equals,  but  also 
in  his  teachers.  He  confuted  the  ill-digested  state- 
ments of  these,  and  thereby  incurred  their  enmity.  As  a 
teacher,  himself,  he  showed  the  same  disre- 
Abeiard.  spg^t  for  the  teachings  of  the  Church  as  he 

had  shown  as  a  pupil  in  the  schools.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  entitled  Sic  et  Non,  in  which,  selecting 
158  subjects,  he  showed  that  the  Church  had  expressed 
herself  in  contradictory  terms  on  them  (answering  yes 
and  no  to  the  same  question).  He  found  an  implacable 
enemy  to  his  rationalistic  tendencies  in  the  mystic  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux  (1091-1153).  His  views 
cfa'S^aux"^  were  officially  condemned.  His  illicit  rela- 
tion to  Heloise  was  brutally  punished  by 
her  uncle,  Foulbert,  and  he  was  himself  compelled  to 
spend  the  last  years  of  his  life  under  a  cloud  in  the 
monastery. 

Much  less  known  than  Abelard,  but  a  keen  dialecti- 
cian and  rationalistic  thinker,  was  Gilbert  of  Porre'e 
(1070-1154).  Gilbert  had  the  faculty  of  so 
PWe.°^  stating  his  views  that,  though  they  were  sus- 
pected of  unsoundness  and  tried  before  a 
council,  he  was  not  condemned,  because  the  pope  himself 
confessed  that  he  did    not  quite  understand   the  views, 


176  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  Gilbert  readily  recognized  the  authority  of  the  Church 
and  professed  to  agree  with  the  council. 

With  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  already   mentioned   as    a 
mystic  and  a  man  of  fervid  religious  feeling,  there  emerges 

a  shade  of  scholasticism  of  a  different  type. 
Bernard.  Bernard  was  surnamed   the  Doctor  Alellifluiis. 

He  laid  down  the  proposition  that  God  is  to 
be  known  by  prayer  rather  than  by  disputation.  7anti/7?i 
Dens  cognoscitur  quantum  diligitur.  With  this  standpoint 
agreed  in  a   measure   also   \A'illiani  of  Champeaux,   who 

founded  the  school  of  St.  Victor.  The  great- 
School  of  est  exponent  of   this   school  was  Hugo  (1097- 

1 141)  surnamed,  of  St.  Victor.  Hugo  held 
that  what  one  is,  is  the  measure  of  his  insight  into  truth  ; 
and,  secondly,  that  man  can  only  know  God  by  loving 
him.  He  was  followed  by  able  successors  in  the  head- 
ship of  the  school  in  the  persons  of  Richard  and  Walter 
of  St.  Victor.  The  mystic  principle  was  further  unfolded 
and  applied  by  these,  and  the  two  wings  of  scholasticism 
drifted  further  apart. 

The  tendency  to  mediate  between  the  dialectic  and  the 
mystic  types  of  scholasticism  was  the  natural  product  of 

the  widening  gulf.  There  were,  naturally, 
Peter  Lom-       \wqx\  who  saw  the  truth  in  each,  and  who  strove 

to  combine  the  good  out  of  both  wings,  and 
thus  lead  into  a  middle  way.  The  most  eminent  represent- 
ative of  these  was  Peter  Lombard  (1 100-1164),  lecturer  at 
the  university  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  bishop  of  the  see 
of  Paris.  In  his  book  of  Sentences  Peter  compiled  the 
opinions  of  the  ancient  fathers  on  theological  subjects  in 
such  a  skillful  way  as  to  secure  for  himself  the  place  of 
an  authority,  and  for  his  book  that  of  a  text  book  for 
three   centuries  after  his  death. 

The  blending  of  the  two  wings  of  scholasticism  resulted 
in    the    increased  hold   of  Aristotle  on   the    theologians. 

This  result  was  not,  however,  attained  without 
Alexander  of      ^  Struggle  and  an  effort  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion.    A  pantheistic  interpretation  of  Aristotle 
by  Amalric   of  Bena  was   condemned  by  a   synod  assem- 
bled at  Paris  in  1209.     The  works  of  Aristotle  were  also 


MONASTICISM  AND  SCHOLASTICISM. 


177 


prohibited  by  the  same  synod.  Nevertheless,  Alexander 
of  Hales  ( 1 185  'i-i2^t^).  Doctor  Jrre/ragabi/is,  through  his 
commentaries,  was  instrumental  in  having  them  restored  to 
the  favor  of  the  pope.  His  Siwima  27ieo/ogica,  or  system 
of  theology,  worked  out  on  Aristotelian  principles,  became 
a  model  for  other  works  on  theology. 

From  another  point  of  view  the  influence  of  John  of  Salis- 
bury (11 15  .'-1 182),  had  the  effect  of  stimulating  the  love  of 
classical  learning,  while  that  of  Albertus  Mag- 
bu'^"°Alber-  ""^  (i  193-1280),  Doctor  Universalis,  broad- 
tus  Magnus,  cned  the  horizon  of  students  by  including  in 
it  natural  science.  Albert  was  a  Dominican 
monk  and  a  close  student  of  Aristotle.  He  had  studied 
theology  as  well  as  cabalistic  and  natural  science,  and 
was  particularly  attracted  by  the  study  of  God's  works  in 
nature.  His  genius  was  versatile  and  his  reputation  for 
learning  very  great.  It  is  due  to  his  labors,  at  least  in 
part,  that  scholasticism  attained,  during  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  highest  point  in  its 
course,  under  Thomas  Aquinas,  Bonaventura  and  Duns 
Scotus. 

Thomas  Aquinas  (1227-1274),  Doctor  Angclicus,    was 
the  descendant  of  high   aristocratic  ancestors,  and  dur- 
ing  the   troublous  times  of  the   Guelph-Ghi- 
A'uSas  belline  feud,  he  was  desired  by  his  parents 

to  enter  into  secular  and  military  life.  But 
he  was  drawn  to  the  Church,  and  eventually  joined  the 
Dominican  order.  He  studied  under  Albert  at  Cologne, 
and  later  taught  at  Rome,  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  Naples. 
His  love  of  work  and  his  application  were  excessive.  He 
won  for  himself  the  highest  place  as  an  authority  on 
Catholic  systematic  theology.  His  works  {Siimma  theolo- 
gica,  Summa  phylosophica  contra  gentiles^  and  Catena  aured) 
are  monuments  of  dialectic  acumen  as  well  as  of  sincere 
piety. 

Bonaventura   (1221-1274),  Doctor   Seraphicus,    was    a 

Franciscan   of  the  purest  moral  character  and  of  great 

ability.     He  became  professor  of  theology  at 

Bonaventura.     Paris  in   1 253,  general  of  the   Franciscans  in 

1256,  bishop  of  Albano  in  1273,  and  cardinal 

12 


178  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

shortly  before  his  death  in  1274.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Aquinas,  inclined  towards  the  mystical  tendency  which 
he,  in  a  manner,  again  separated  from  the  main  stream 
of  scholasticism  by  his  summing  up  the  problem  of  re- 
ligion in  the  figure  of  "  the  soul  in  exile  from  God 
seeking  the  way,  and  in  the  gospel  shown  it,  back  to 
God." 

John   Duns   Scotus    (i 265-1308),  Doctor  SuhtUis   was 
characterized    by  abnormal  acuteness.     He   entered  the 

Franciscan  order,  and  appeared  as  the  oppo- 
Duns  Scotus.     nent  in  theology  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  chief 

representative  of  the  rival  order  of  Domini- 
cans. More  interested  in  arguments  than  in  doctrines, 
he  elaborated  the  theory  of  the  immaculate  conception  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  taught  that  the  atonement  of  Christ  was 
gratuitously  accepted  by  the  Father,  and  did  not  neces- 
sarily work  out  a  satisfaction  of  justice,  ascribed  an 
arbitrary  will  to  God,  and  considered  individuality  a  per- 
fection. Upon  all  these  points  Thomas  had  taught  the 
very  opposite  theories.  There  arose,  accordingly,  a  con- 
troversy, in  which  the  followers  of  the  two  theologians, 
under  the  names  of  Thomists  and  Scotists,  carried  on 
their  discussions  on  these  subtleties  for  generations  fol- 
lowing. 

A  slight    reaction  against  the   speculative  element    in 
scholasticism    manifested   itself  in   Roger  Bacon  (1214- 

1294),  Doctor  Alirahilis.  Without  distinctly 
Roger  Bacon,     abandoning  dialectics  Roger  Bacon  attempted 

to  make  a  place  for  the  empirical  method. 
He  studied  language,  history,  and  especially  natural 
science  and  mathematics.  He  was  encouraged  in  his 
work  in  a  measure  by  Clement  IV.  but  on  account  of  ar- 
rogance and  extreme  plainness  of  speech  he  was  twice 
imprisoned. 

Finally,  Raimond  Lull   (1234-1315),  Doctor  Ilhtjuina- 
tus,  though  more  distinguished  as  a   zealous   missionary 

than  as  a  scholastic,  must  be  named  in  this 
Raymond  Lull,  counectiou  for  his  deviation   in  the   sphere  of 

learning  from  the  path  trodden  by  the  scholars 
pf  his  time.     He  sought  by  a  simpler,  though  somewhat 


MONASTICISM  AND  SCHOLASTICISM. 


179 


mechanical  method,  to  arrange  all  knowledge  in  a  new 
scheme  of  science.  This  he  called  Ars  Magna.  As  a 
missionary  he  twice  sailed  from  his  native  Majorca  for 
Tunis  and  Algiers,  there  to  preach  Christianity  and  con- 
fute Averrhoism  as  a  philosophy  and  Mohammedanism 
as  a  religion.  On  a  third  missionary  tour  he  was  mortally 
wounded  on  occasion  of  the  outburst  of  fanatical  zeal 
against  his  teaching. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPACY. 

Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303),  on  assuming  the  papal 
office,    sought   to    raise    it    once   more   to    the    position 

of  influence  it  occupied  under  Innocent  III. 
Boniface  VIII.  As  a  man  Boniface  was  bold  and  keen,  and 
rlir.  "'^'  ^    had  thoroughly  acquainted  himself  with    the 

general  political  situation.  He  adopted  Hilde- 
brand's  ideals  and  ventured  to  enforce  his  authority  over 
princes.  When  complaints  came  to  him  from  the  clergy 
of  France  and  England  that  the  Church  and  clergy  were 
being  taxed  for  military  purposes,  he  issued  the  bull 
Cleiicis  Laicos,  forbidding  this  taxation  on  pain  of  ex- 
communication. In  Italy,  he  made  his  power  felt  by 
exiling  the  ancient  and  influential  family  of  the  Colonna, 
and  thus  incurred  their  implacable  enmity.  He  reproved 
Philip  the  Fair  of  France  for  seizing  on  ecclesiastical 
property.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  the  high-handed 
administration  of  the  papacy  by  Innocent  III.  was  about 
to  be  duplicated.  Boniface  was  made  the  arbitrator  of  a 
dispute  between  Philip  of  France  and  Edward  of  Eng- 
land. But  Philip  did  not  mean  to  yield  obedience  to  the 
pope.  He  declared  that  in  secular  affairs  the  king  of 
France  is  subject  to  no  one.  The  pope  issued  the  bull 
Una7)i  Saticiam,  in  which  he  claimed  that  both  secular 
and  spiritual  authority  are  committed  to  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  though  the  former  is  to  be  wielded  for  the  Church 
by  the  State,  without,  however,  a  forfeiture  of  the  right  to 
direct  as  to  how  and  by  whom.  Hence  every  creature 
180 


THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPACY. 


I«I 


must  obey  the  pope,  or  else  forfeit  salvation.  The  king 
had  the  pope  seized  and  confined  in  prison,  where  he 
died. 

Benedict   XI.     (1303-1304)   made   peace    with  Philip, 
but    only    nine  months    after  the    time    of    his    assump- 
tion   of   office,    he    died    suddenly   and    was 
Removal  to       succeeded     by     a    Frenchman,    Clement    V. 

Avignon.  \         ,-.i 

(1305-1314).  Clement  was  a  creature  of  the 
French  king,  and  yielding  to  the  desire  of  the  king  to  free 
the  papacy  from  Italian  influence,  he  settled  down  in  the 
city  of  Avignon  instead  of  taking  up  his  abode,  like  all 
his  predecessors,  at  Rome. 

The  transfer  of  the  papacy  to  the  French  city  of  Avi- 
gnon marks  the  beginning  of  a  period  of  seventy  years 
which  has  been  called  the  "  Babylonian  Cap- 
CapS'^of  ^'^^^y  °^  ^'"'^  Papacy,"  from  the  fact  that  its 
the  Papacy  duration  was  of  the  same  length  as  the  dura- 
tion of  the  exile  of  the  Jews  in  Babylonia.  It 
is  a  period  of  general  decline  and  loss  of  prestige.  The 
pope,  with  whom  it  begins,  continued  as  he  began,  a  rather 
unwilling  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  French  king.  He  did 
indeed  recognize  Henry  of  Luxemburg  as  emperor  after 
he  was  elevated  to  that  dignity,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
king  Philip,  but  he  had  previously  exerted  himself  in 
behalf  of  Philip's  candidate  against  Henry.  In  other 
matters,  he  carried  out,  with  more  or  less  reluctance,  the 
desires  of  the  king.  He  interpreted  away  the  deliver- 
ances of  Boniface  VIII.  as  to  the  relations  of  Church  and 
State,  by  making  France  an  exception  to  them.  He  re- 
moved all  personal  ecclesiastical  discipline  on  the  king. 
He  joined  in  the  struggle  against  the  order  of  the  Templar 
Knights,  and  finally  suppressed  the  order,  not  on  the 
ground  of  charges  proved  against  them,  but  for  the  good 
of  the  public.  The  king's  attitude  towards  the  Templars 
was  that  of  one  who  feared  their  great  power  and  wealth 
as  an  organization,  and  desired  their  suppression  by  any 
available  means.  He  brought  against  them  charges  of 
heresy,  blasphemy  and  immorality,  and  extracted  confes- 
sions from  some  members  of  the  order  by  the  use  of 
torture,  but  when,  on   a  closer  investigation  by  the  com- 


1 82  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

mission  of  the  council  of  Vienne  (131 1),  these  charges 
were  proved  to  be  groundless,  he  was  satisfied  with 
the  bare  suppression  of  the  order  without  special 
cause. 

Under    John     XXII.      (1316-1334),     who    succeeded 
Clement   V.,  a  new  feud    between    the  papacy   and   the 

empire  broke  out.      After  a  conflict  with  Fred- 
Feud  with  the    erick  of  Austria,    Louis    of  Bavaria   assumed 
'^'^"^^"  control  of  the  empire  without  the  consent  of 

the  pope.  For  this  he  was  anathematized,  but  brought 
counter  charges  against  the  pope,  and  appealed  to  a 
future  council  and  a  legitimate  pope.  This  feud  John 
bequeathed  to  his  successor,  Benedict  XII.  (1334- 
1342).  Benedict,  however,  was  of  a  pacific  disposition, 
and  would  have  been  reconciled  to  Louis  and  even  re- 
turned to  Rome  had  he  been  permitted  by  the  French 
king. 

The  steady  gains  of  the  empire   in  its  struggle  with 
the    papacy,    found   expression    in  1356,    in   an    imperial 

decree,  called  the  Golden  Bull,  in  which  the 
Golden  Bull,      independence    of    the  empire   vi'as    distinctly 

asserted  and  the  Electoral  College  was  de- 
fined. This  college  was  to  have  the  absolute  power  of 
choosing  the  emperors  and  was  to  consist  of  seven  eccle- 
siastical and  secular  princes,  viz.,  the  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  the  archbishop  of  Treves,  the  archbishop  of 
Ivlayence,  the  king  of  Bohemia,  the  duke  of  Saxony,  the 
margrave  of  Brandenburg  and  the  count  Palatine  of  the 
Rhine.  The  effect  of  the  Golden  Bull  was  to  prevent 
further  disputes  regarding  the  succession,  and  consequent 
appeals  to  the  pope  to  decide  between  the  contesting  can- 
didates for  the  imperial  crown. 

Thus  the  feud  was  prolonged  into  the  papacy  of  Clem- 
ent   VI.    (1342-1352),    who    created    a    rival    emperor. 

Meantime  the  spirit  of  discontent  began  to 
Rienzi.  brcw   in   Europe,   especially   in    England   and 

Italy.  In  the  latter  country  Rienzi  for  a  time 
held  sway  under  a  revival  of  the  old  republican  form  of 
government.  The  popes  continued  to  rule  the  Church 
from    Avignon.     Innocent  VI.     (1352— 1362)    bent    his 


THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPACY.  1 83 

energies  to  reducing  the  use  made  of  the  Church  by 
princes  for  their  own  secular  ends.  Urban  V,  (1362- 
1370)  broke  the  Babylonian  captivity  by  an 
End  of  the  effort  to  rctum  to  Rome.  But  this  proved 
aptivity.  ^^  ^^  ^  ^.^.^  rather  than  a  return  home.  He 
was  persuaded  by  his  cardinals  to  go  back  to  Avignon. 
Gregory  XI.  (1370-1378),  finally  yielding  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Catherine  of  Sienna,  did  put  an  end  to  the  exile, 
in  spite  of  the  clamors  of  the  cardinals  who  wished  him 
to  stay  in  the  French  city  (1377). 

Urban    VI.    (1378-1389),    was    elected   by  the    cardi- 
nals  on  the  distinct  understanding  that  he  would  go  to 
Avignon    again.     As    he   declined,   after    his 
The  Great        elcctiou,  to  take  this   step,  the  French  cardi- 
'^"^"''  nals   constituting  a   decided    majority  of  the 

college,  withdrew  in  a  body  and  elected  Clement  VII., 
at  Avignon,  and  declared  the  election  of  Urban  illegal. 
Urban  appointed  new  cardinals  in  their  places,  and  thus 
with  two  popes  and  two  colleges  of  cardinals,  a  schism 
was  effected  which  lasted  forty  years  (1378-1417). 

The  healing  of  this  schism  now  became  the  great  care 
of  those  who  loved  the  Church  and  its  peace.     The  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  took  the  initiative  in  the  effort 
Attempts  to       to  brins:  about  a  reunion,  and  proposed  a  plan 

Heal  the  711  i       ^ 

Breach.  to  the  king.     Urban  was  succeeded  by  Boni- 

face IX.  (1389-1404),  at  Rome  ;  Clem- 
ent by  Benedict  XIII.  (1394-1433),  at  Avignon.  In 
the  midst  of  increasing  confusion  popes  succeeded  one 
another  at  Rome,  until  an  ecumenical  council  was  called 
at  Pisa  in  1409.  The  ruling  spirit  of  this  council 
proved  to  be  Gerson,  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
Gregory  XII.  (1406-1409)  was  the  Roman  pope.  The 
council  bound  itself  not  to  dissolve  until  ecclesiasti- 
cal reforms  were  effected.  Alexander  V,  (1409-1410) 
was  elected  pope,  while  the  two  rival  popes  (Benedict 
XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.)  were  declared  schismatics  and 
heretics  and  were  deposed.  Alexander  promised  to  insti- 
tute reforms  in  the  Church,  and  in  some  minor  matters  ful- 
filled his  promise,  but  did  not  go  far  enough.  The  rival 
popes  still  held  to  their  claims  and  the  Church  saw  itself 


1 84  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

as  at  the  end  of  the  Tusculan  domination,  subject  to  three 
heads.  Alexander,  however,  died  in  1410,  and  his 
place  was  filled  by  John  XXIII.  (1410-1415).  John 
was  known  as  a  crafty,  daring  and  dissolute  man,  and  all 
hope  of  reform  was  given  up  as  long  as  he  should  hold  the 
papacy.  The  difficulty  was  solved  finally  by  the  emperor 
Sigismund,  who  summoned  a  council  at  Constance. 

The  Council    of   Constance    (1414-1418)    is  the   six- 
teenth ecumenical,  and  one   of  the  most  memorable  in 
the    history    of  the    Church.     In    attendance 
Council  of         it;  -^^^   ti^ie  largest  ever  held.     It  brousfht  into 

C^onstsiicc.  .  .  . 

the  imperial  city  a  concourse  of  18,000  priests 
and  over  100,000  strangers.  It  condemned  John  Huss  to 
be  burned  at  the  stake  and  settled  the  schism  by  taking 
measures  against  the  rival  popes.  John  XXIII.  was 
brought  to  trial  for  his  crimes,  of  which  there  were  enumer- 
ated as  many  as  seventy.  He  was  deposed,  and  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  life.  Gregory  XII.  was  also 
deposed,  and,  having  submitted  to  this  sentence,  was 
made  bishop  of  Porto.  Benedict  was  also  deposed  as  a 
heretic,  but  kept  up  an  ineffectual  and  insignificant  resist- 
ance for  some  time.  The  new  pope  elected  by  the  coun- 
cil was  Martin  V.  (1417-1431).  He  also,  on  assum- 
ing office,  proved  truant  to  the  council  and  refused  to 
carry  out  its  plans  in  the  matter  of  reforms.  Demands 
for  reforms  continued,  and  two  local  councils  at  Pavia  and 
Sienna  (1423-1424)  gave  him  occasion  by  the  small 
attendance  mustered,  to  prosecute  a  dilatory  process  and 
relegate  the  whole  matter  to  a  larger  council  at  Basel. 

The  Council  of  Basel  was  the   seventeenth  ecumenical 
(1431).       Martin    having  died  before  the    council    met, 

his  successor  Eugenius  IV.  (i  431-1447), 
Council  of  organized  it.  Two  objects  were  put  before  the 
moTai  to^^"  assembly:  first,  the  extermination  of  heretics, 
Florence.  and  sccoud,  the   purification   of   the  Church. 

As  to  the  latter  the  council  went  beyond  the 
desires  of  the  pope.  Accordingly  a  decree  was  issued 
removing  the  seat  of  the  council  from  Basel  to  Ferrara 
(1437),  and  thence  subsequently  to  Florence.  Some 
refused    to   go    to    Ferrara   and  held  sessions  at  Basel. 


THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPACY.  1 85 

These  the  pope  excommunicated.  They  in  return  insti- 
tuted legal  proceedings  against  him  and  deposed  him 
{1439),  electing  Felix  V.  in  his  place.  But  the  au- 
thority of  Felix  was  acknowledged  by  only  a  small 
fraction  of  the  Church.  But  the  schism  was  not  allowed 
to  grow.  The  emperor,  Frederick  III.,  mediated  between 
the  parties,  and  found  in  this  work  an  able  aid  in  the 
secretary  of  the  council,  yEneas  Silvius  Piccolomini. 
This  talented  man  came  to  prominence  during  the 
sessions  of  the  council  and  opposed  the  pope's  plan  of 
removing  it  to  Ferrara.  At  his  suggestion  now  the  par- 
ties entered  into  a  compromise,  and  some  of  the  radical 
reforms  were  thus  abandoned. 

During  the  period  of  its  sessions  at  Florence  the  coun- 
cil undertook  the  difficult  task  of  reuniting  the  Greek  and 
Roman   branches   of  Christendom.     A   basis 

Plan  to  reunite       r  .  1      j    1        . 1  •  1         j 

the  Eastern  oi  agreement  was  reached  by  the  council  and 
and  Western      asseutcd  to  by  the  representatives  of  the  East- 

Oiiurcncs  .  • 

ern  Church.  According  to  its  terms  the 
"  Filioque  "  was  declared  a  formal  deviation  from  the  old 
standards.  Both  leavened  and  unleavened  bread  were 
allowed  in  the  Eucharist ;  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory  was 
admitted,  though  no  definition  of  its  nature  was  insisted 
on  ;  the  primacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff  was  conceded,  and 
an  order  agreed  upon  as  to  the  rank  of  the  Eastern  patri- 
archs according  to  the  old  canons.  These  concessions 
were  not  ratified  by  the  Eastern  Church  in  spite  of  the 
assent  of  her  delegates  at  the  council,  and  the  agreement 
proved  to  be  a  series  of  empty  resolutions. 

The  Eastern  empire  succumbed,  soon  after  this,  before 
the  aggressive  Ottoman  Turks.  Constantinople  fell  in 
1453.  Meantime  Eugenius  had  successfully  diverted  the 
energy  of  the  reforming  channel  and  the  remarkable 
efforts  of  the  advocates  of  councils  as  against  popes  came 
to  an  end. 

The    fall  of   Constantinople    and  the  dispersion   of  a 

large  number  of  educated  Greeks  in  Eastern  Europe  were 

followed  by  a  revival  of  learning  which  could 

Fall  of  Con-       not  fail  to  touch   the   Church  very  speedily. 

The  papacy  entered  into  a  new  stage  of  its  ex- 


i86  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

istence  which  has  been  properly  called  the  paganized 
stage.  The  first  of  the  popes  of  this  stage  was  Nicholas 
V.  (1447-1455).  Nicholas  was  a  lover  of  classical 
learning,  and  had  no  intention  of  infusing  into  the  high 
ecclesiastical  office  he  held  the  spirit  of  ancient  paganism, 
but  his  patronage  of  the  classics  naturally  brought  about 
this  result.  He  made  a  large  collection  of  manuscripts 
which  later  grew  into  the  famous  Vatican  library. 

Calixtus    III.    (1455-1458)    was    the    first    Borgia    to 

ascend  the  papal   throne,  and  distinguished  himself  for 

crusading  zeal  and  nepotism.     As  to  crusad- 

Revivai  of         jj-jor  enterprise,  the  fall  of  Eastern  Christendom 

Crusading.  111  •  •        1  i-       1  rr^      1 

and  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  lurks 
against  the  whole  of  Europe  revived  the  spirit  of  pride 
for  Christianity  and  hatred  of  unbelievers,  and  it  became 
an  ambition  and  an  all-absorbing  subject  of  effort  in  the 
Church  to  expel  the  enemy  of  the  cross  from  soil  formerly 
occupied  by  Christians.  Pius  II.  (1458-1464),  (the 
^neas  Silvius  Piccolomini  of  the  council  of  Basel),  him- 
self headed  an  expedition  against  the  Turks  but  died  on 
the  way  at  Venice.  Pius  also  seems  to  have  undergone 
a  transformation  as  he  assumed  the  papacy;  for  instead 
of  advocating  as  he  did  at  Basel  the  subordination  of  the 
popes  to  the  councils,  he  now  appears  in  the  light  of  a 
most  zealous  believer  in  the  supremacy  of  the  pope. 

His    successor,    Paul  II.  (1464-1471),  was  the  first  of 
four  popes  who  have  been  called  the  wicked  popes.     He 

was  pompous  and  avaricious  and  an  enemy  of 
Po''^'*'''^''       learning.       Sixtus    IV.    (147 1-1484)    and  the 

two  who  came  after  him  treated  their  posi- 
tion as  not  even  indirectly  related  with  Christianity  as  a 
religious  and  moral  system.  As  far  as  their  conduct  in- 
dicates, they  might  have  been  ignorant  of  the  existence 
of  the  simplest  and  most  elementary  teachings  of  the 
gospel.  Sixtus  is  reported  to  have  had  sixteen  illegiti- 
mate children  whose  interests  he  advanced,  using  his 
office  to  this  end.  He  implicated  himself  in  quarrels 
with  the  Medici  in  Florence  and  made  an  unsuccessful 
appeal  for  a  crusade. 

Innocent    VIII.    (1484-1492)     followed    in    the    foot- 


THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  PAPACY.  187 

steps  of  his  predecessors  in  immorality,  as  also  in  the 
J    ,,^    effort  to  rouse  the  Church  to  a  crusade.     But 

Alexander  VI.  i         i        r    i  i      •  <•     i 

the  lowest  depth  or  degradation  of  the  papacy 
was  reached  in  Alexander  VI.  (1493-1503),  previously 
Roderigo  Borgia.  The  sole  aim  of  Alexander  in  secur- 
ing the  papacy  seemed  to  be  the  foundation  of  an  in- 
dependent kingdom  for  his  family.  He  lived  in  open 
illicit  relation  with  a  concubine,  Rosa  Vanozza,  and 
without  apparent  compunctions  used  his  place  to  promote 
the  interests  of  his  son,  Csesar  Borgia,  whom  he  even  made 
bishop  and  archbishop.  The  vices  of  Caesar  were  equal 
to  those  of  his  father.  He  threw  off  the  clerical  garb  in 
order  that  he  might  the  more  freely  run  his  career  of 
crime.  He  is  said  to  have  mixed  the  cup  of  poison  which 
his  father  drank  by  mistake  and  from  which  he  died. 

Pius  HI.  (1503),  the  immediate  successor  of  Alex- 
ander, reigned  only  a  short  time.  Julius  II.  (1503- 
15 13))  '^  nephew  of  Sixtus  IV.,  was  a  man  of 
military  talents  which  he  used  in  freeing  Italy 
from  the  rule  of  petty  tyrants — among  others  the  in- 
famous Cffisar  Borgia.  He  also  convened  an  ecumenical 
council  at  the  Lateran,  the  eighteenth  ecumenical  (15 12), 
which  pronounced  against  simony  in  the  election  of 
popes.  The  last  of  the  popes  before  the  Reformation 
was  Leo  X.  (1513-1521),  previously  Giovanni  Medici, 
the  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  By  natural  en- 
dowment and  education  Leo  was  a  lover  of  art.  He  at 
once  became  the  patron  of  learning  and  encouraged  edu- 
cation in  the  liberal  arts.  But  he  also  inherited  some  of 
the  extravagance  and  love  of  display  which  characterized 
his  father.  In  this  way  he  used  all  the  revenues  of  the 
papacy.  As  a  manager  he  showed  great  skill  in  playing 
off  Spain  against  France,  and  succeeded  in  inducing 
Francis  I.  to  give  up  the  pragmatic  sanction  in  return  for 
the  promise  of  Milan. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

LITERATURE   AND    PHILOSOPHY. 

This  period  witnessed   a  revolution  in   scholasticism. 
While  the  debate  between  the  Thomists  and  the  Scotists 

went  on  and  men  like  Thomas  Bradwardine 
Scholasticism.    (1290-1349)   w'orked  in  the  spirit   of  Aquinas 

and  fought  the  Pelagianism  that  had  found 
its  way  into  the  Church,  scholastic  learning  became 
diversified  by  the  development  on  one  side  of  secular 
and  natural  science,  and  on  the  other  of  a  strongly  pro- 
nounced mysticism. 

The    old    question    between    realism    and    nominalism 
was  revived  by  William  of  Occam   (1280-1349),  who  in 

spite  of  the  professed  realism   of  the   Church, 
William  of        taught    a    form     of    nominalism     (sometimes 
'^"'"'  called  conceptualism).      Occam  was  a  Fran- 

ciscan and  a  disciple  of  Scotus.  He  denied  the  existence 
of  universal  ideas  except  in  the  mind.  Hence  theology 
may  not  be  an  exact  science.  The  pope  may  err,  as  also 
may  councils.  All  the  hierarchy  may  be  given  up  if  the 
Church  require  it.  The  emperor  may  appoint  or  depose 
the  pope.  These  views  Occam  was  able  to  teach  from 
Munich  under  the  protection  of  Louis  of  Bavaria. 

At   the    same  time,    and    under  the  protection   of  the 
same  monarch,   Marsilius    of  Padua  (1275-1342)  in  the 

Defensor  Pads  taught  a  more  thoroughgoing 

ecclesiastico-political  theory.  The  Church, 
Marsilius  of  according  to  this  author,  is  a  spiritual  body 
^*  "^'  having  no  judicial  or  punitive  functions.     The 


LITERATURE  AND  PHILOSOPHY.  i8y 

clergy  can  only  teach,  warn,  counsel.  All  priests  are 
equal.  Christian  communities  have  the  right  to  appoint 
their  own  pastors  and  bishops.  Holy  Scripture  is  the 
only  source  of  faith. 

The  revolutionary  views   of  Occam   were  finally  com- 
bined  by   the   last     of   the    scholastics  —  Gabriel     Biel 

(? 1495) — ^^^^    ^'^^    deliverances    of    the 

Gabriel  Biel.      council  of  Constance  and    Basel,  and  dissem- 
inated, to  the  detriment  of  the  idea  of  papal 
infallibility  and  the  exaltation   of  the  authority  of  coun- 
cils. 

Mysticism   broke   loose   from    the    scholastic    method 
with   Meister  Eckart    (i 260-1327).      Eckarl's    theory  of 
knowledge    is   fundamental   to    his    mode   of 
iMysticism.        thought.     Knowledge  is  the  union   of  know- 
^'^''^"'  ing  subject  and  object  known.     Full  knowl- 

edo-e  of  God  is  the  result  of  absorption  in  the  divine 
essence.  This  was  too  subtle  to  be  popularly  under- 
stood at  the  time,  but  it  had  the  charm  of  religious 
fervor  which  always  attracts. 

John    Tauler    (i 290-1361),    starting  as   a    Dominican 
monk,  adopted  Eckart's  mysticism,  but  purged  it  of  its 
pantheistic  tendency  and   gave  it  a  practical 
Tauler.  tum.     He  labored   in   Strasburg  and  Cologne 

Basel°'*^°^  as  a  preacher,  and  though  his  mysticism  often 
roused  the  suspicions  of  his  contemporaries, 
his  sermons  and  his  treatise  on  the  Imitation  of  the  Pov- 
erty of  Christ  indicate  no  tendency  to  swerve  from  the 
beaten  path.  To  Tauler  has  sometimes  been  ascribed 
The  Master's  Book,  giving  an  account  of  the  author's 
conversion,  but  it  was  perhaps  a  work  of  Nicholas  of 
Basel,  a  member  of  the  sect  called  The  Friends  of 
God,  who  was  burned  for  heresy  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Henry  Suso    (1295-1366)    cultivated   with    great   dil- 
igence   the   emotional   element    in  his    religious    nature. 
He  made  for  himself    an   allegory    in    which 
Henry  Suso.      wisdom  bccame  the  object  of  his  love.     Per- 
sonifying wisdom,  he  sought  to  win  her  as  a 
bride  through  mortification  and  suffering.     He  was  closely 


joo  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

associated  with  Eckart  and  was  partially  won  over  by 
Eckart  from  exaggerated  self-tortures.  But  he  continued 
to  live  under  the  spell  of  warm  religious  feeling  which  to 
the  end  worked  on  his  imagination. 

John    Ruysbroek     (1298-1386)    was     also     under    the 
influence  of   Eckart.       He  expounded  his    mystical  con- 
templations   in    the    Flemish    language.       He 
John  Ruys-       was  preserved   by  a  sound  moral  nature  from 
^""''^'  extravagance,  though  he  lived  by  preference 

in  solitude,  spent  his  time  in  religious  meditation,  and 
acquired  great  reputation  and  influence. 

All   the  above  named  mystics  emanate   from  Eckart's 
circle  and  are  careful   to  maintain  their  connection  and 
own  their   allegiance   to  the  Church  Catholic. 
"The  Friends    \  much  larger  number  whose  individual  iden- 
°^  *^'°^'  tity   has    been    lost   were   not    as    scrupulous 

about  their  association  with  the  Church,  considering  it 
corrupt  and  liable  to  the  visitation  of  the  wrath  of  God. 
These  formed  the  ascetic  contemplative  sect  of  The 
Friends  of  God. 

Finally,  from  indifference  to  the  authority  of  the  Church 
mysticism  passed  into  actual  denial  of  the  truth  of  its 
teachins"s  and  opposition  to  the  established  moral  and 
religion's  order  in  the  sect  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Spirit. 
These  denied  the  existence  of  God  apart  from  the  world, 
deified  human  nature,  and  asserted  its  independence  and 
the  sovereignty  of  the  human  spirit,  and  therefore  the 
injuriousness  of  ecclesiastical  laws. 

Another  type  of  mysticism  is  represented  in  Thomas  h 
Kempis    who    flourished     a     century  later    than    Eckart 
(1380-1471).     A  Kempis  gave  himself  to   the 
Thomas^         Contemplation  of  the   divine  character  as  re- 
'^'""P''-  vealed  in  the  Bible.     His  object  was  to  lead 

men  to  Christ  as  the  Truth  by  a  process  of  quiet  com- 
munion. His  work  on  the  Imitaticm  of  Christ  has  taken 
its  place  among  religious  classics  and  exercised  a  vast 
influence  for  good,  having  passed  through  thousands  of 
editions. 

Natural  science  had  been  cultivated  before  this  age 
only  incidentally  by  individuals,  such  as  Albertus  Magnus 


LITERATURE  AND  PHILOSOPHY.  191 

and    Roger  Bacon.     Though  no  tendency   appears  even 

at  this  time  to  enter  this  field  in  earnest,  yet 
Natural  Science. the  hearings  of  a  study  of  nature  on  questions 
labuTde^"*      of    theology  are   realized     by     Raymond     of 

Sabunde  (fl.  1435),  ^'^^°  wrote  Liber  A'aturce 
sire  Crcahirum  (1435).  His  theory^  is  that  God's  first 
revelation  is  to  be  read  in  nature.  Sin  and  the  fall  only 
make  a  direct  revelation  in  the  Scriptures  necessary. 

Biblical  learning  also  remained,   as   in  the  ages   past, 
a  comparatively  barren  field.     In  Nicholas  de  Lyra  (?  1270 

1352),  however,  a  new  principle  began  to  be 
Biblical  Learn-  seen  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures, 
'(kflyra!'''"''''^  Instead  of  resorting  to  the  ancient  fathers  to 
s^'^'ulensis  learn  the  contents  of  the  Bible,  Nicholas  goes 
tapuensis.  ^^  ^^^^  Bible  itsclf.  And  here,  instead  of  look- 
ing for  figurative  and  allegorical  meanings,  he  seeks  for 
the  literal  and  historical  sense.  Faber  Stapulensis 
(1455-1537),  going  a  step  further,  departs  from  the  usage 
of  making  the  Vulgate  version  the  basis  of  study  and  re- 
verts to  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages. 

While  the  intellectual  movement  within  the  Church  was 
thus  towards  the  broadening  of  the  scholasticism  of  the 

preceding  age,  a  mighty  revolution  was  going 
The  Renais-  on  outside  the  Church.  This  has  been  termed 
^^"'^^^  the  Renaissance  (Renascence    or  Revival  of 

Learning).  Various  factors  and  forces  conspired  at  this 
time  to  bring  about  the  change.  The  mariner's  compass 
had  been,  no  doubt,  used  in  Europe  before  this  age,  but 
its  use  became  more  common  now,  rendering  travel  and 
the  exchange  of  opinions  easy.  The  invention  of  gun- 
powder also  had  more  than  one  indirect  effect  on  human 
living  and  thinking.  But  the  most  forcible  impulse  to 
the  change  was  given  by  the  printing  press  (1450)- 
Coming  as  this  does  nearly  at  the  same  time  as  the  dif- 
fusion of  Greek  learning  which  followed  the  capture  of 
Constantinople,  it  served  as  a  swift  vehicle  for  the  trans- 
mission of  those  ideas  which  the  renewed  study  of 
Greek  authors  could  not  but  bring  before  the  minds  of 
men. 

Classical  ideals  and  ideas,  as  far  as  the  knowledge  of 


192 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


the  Latin  only  could  furnish  them,  were  already  before  the 
Italians    at    the   time  of   Dante   (1265-1321), 
Reuchlin.  Petrarch   (1304-1374),  and   Boccaccio  (13 13- 

1375).  But  it  was  after  the  fall  of  the  East- 
ern empire  that  a  Platonic  academy  was  formed  in  P'lor- 
ence  under  Cosimo  de  Medici  (1389-1464).  Marsilius 
Ficinu  (1433-1499)  translated  Plato  into  Latin,  and  Pico 
de  la  Mirandola  (1463-1494)  devised  his  scheme  of  recon- 
ciliation between  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  systems,  as 
well  as  between  philosophy  and  religion.  These  studies 
mark  the  beginning  of  humanism  in  literature.  From 
Italy  it  passed  into  Germany.  Among  its  first  dissemina- 
tors was  Rudolf  Agricola  (1443-1485).  Through  his 
friend,  the  bishop  of  Worms,  Agricola  was  instrumental 
in  commending  humanism  to  the  German  Church.  The 
bishop  of  Worms  brought  to  the  front  John  Reuchlin,  one 
of  the  most  enthusiastic  scholars  of  the  age.  Reuchlin 
(1455-1522)  learned  Hebrew  of  a  Jew  and  wrote  a 
Hebrew  grammar,  thus  becoming  the  father  of  Hebrew 
lore  among  modern  Christians.  Soon  the  adherents  of 
the  new  movement  were  carried  away  by  pagan  ideas 
to  the  extent  of  denying  many  positions  held  firmly  in  the 
Church,  and  were  fiercely  attacked  by  the  monks.  As 
the  humanists  made  their  appeal  to  the  Greek  and 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  the  monks  demanded  the  destruction 
of  all  Hebrew  writings  except  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures. For  this  they  were  called  obscurantists,  and 
mercilessly  caricatured  by  the  humanists. 

One  of  the  most  active  in  this  warfare  between  humanism 

and  obscurantism  was  Desiderius  Erasmus  (1457-1536),  a 

man   of  the  keenest  sensibility  as  well  as  of 

Erasmus  wide  learning  and  an  assiduous  worker.     Eras- 

More.  Colet.  ,..'='.,,,.  ,.  ,  ,.  , 

mus  distuiguished  himself  as  the  editor  of 
many  of  the  ancient  fathers,  and  especially  for  first 
putting  into  printed  form  before  the  public  the  Greek 
Testament  (1516).  In  England  humanism  was  repre- 
sented by  John  Colet,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  Thomas 
More  the  author  of  the  Utopia,  in  which  he  describes 
an  ideal  state  constructed  on  rational  principles. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

SPIRITUAL   LIFE. 

Boniface  VIII.  was  the  originator  of  the  idea  of  jubi- 
lees. In  order  to  celebrate  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century  fittingly  at  Rome,  he  proclaimed  the 
The  Jubilee,  year  1300  a  jubilee  and  promised  absolu- 
tion from  all  their  sins  to  all  who  should  in 
penitence  visit  the  churches  of  the  apostles.  This  brought 
a  concourse  of  200,000  people  into  Rome  and  proved  a 
large  source  of  revenue  to  the  holy  see.  The  example 
of  Boniface  was,  therefore,  followed  by  his  successors  in 
after  years.  At  first  every  fiftieth,  and  later  every  twenty- 
fifth  year  were  proclaimed  jubilee  years.  Instead  of 
actual  attendance  at  Rome,  however,  for  the  sake  of  ob- 
taining absolution,  the  payment  into  the  Church's  treas- 
ury of  the  cost  of  the  journey  was  permitted  as  sufficient. 
The  influence  of  this  system  was  to  strengthen  the  pop- 
ular belief  in  the  efficacy  of  penance,  and  set  out  more 
clearly  the  Church's  doctrine  of  indulgences. 

The  doctrine  of  indulgences  matured  during  the  pre- 
vious age.  According  to  the  principle  underlying  it  the 
Church  imposes  a  penalty  for  every  confessed 
Indulgences,  siu.  But  such  penalty  can  be  transmuted 
from  a  work  involving  humiliation  and  suffer- 
ing into  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money  into  the  Church's 
treasury.  At  first  indulgences  were  granted  in  remission 
of  only  part  of  the  penalty  imposed  ;  afterwards  they 
were  issued  as  plenary  remission  for  the  whole  of  the 
penalty;  and,  finally,  at  the  end  of  the  period,  it  became 
the  custom  to  give  them  in  anticipation  of  the  commission 
of  the  sin  and  the  imposition  of  the  penance. 

13  193 


194  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

In  enforcing  discipline  the  Church  devised  the  special 
institution  called  the  Inquisition.     The  Dominicans  took 

charge  of  the  work  of  hunting  out  and  bring- 
The  Inquisition,  ing  to  trial  herctics,  as   early  as    1235.     The 

secrecy  of  their  procedure  and  the  doubtful 
methods  used  in  securing  evidence  made  the  system  un- 
popular. In  France,  Bernard  Felicieux  protested  against 
its  admission  into  the  country  (1320).  Its  hold  on 
Germany  was  loose.  In  Spain,  however,  it  was  rigidly 
applied  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Its  organization 
was  brought  to  the  highest  perfection  under  Torquemada 
(1483-1499),  who  was  put  at  its  head  ;  its  scope  also 
was  broadened,  so  that  not  only  heretics,  but  Jews  and 
sorcerers  were  made  objects  of  its  search. 

But  while   the  Roman  hierarchy  tightened   its  grasp  on 
the  Church,  and  the  papacy  set  its  face  like  flint  against 

reform,  the  spirit  of  discontentment  with  cor- 
Wyciif.  ruption  found  vent  in   the  preaching  of  a  f«w 

who  rose  above  fear,  and  like  the  prophets  of 
the  old  dispensation,  denounced  evil  in  high  places. 
Of  these  precursors  of  the  Reformation  the  earliest  was 
the  Englishman,  Wyclif.  John  W'yclif  (1320-1384)  was 
sprung  from  a  noble  family  in  Yorkshire,  educated  at  Ox- 
ford and  became  master  of  Balliol  College.  The  political 
condition  of  England  in  his  day  was  favorable  to  the  devel- 
opment of  independence  from  continental  control  both  in 
State  and  Church.  The  papacy  was  under  the  influence 
of  the  French,  but  the  French  were  the  national  enemies  of 
England.  To  one  who  could  utilize  the  political  feeling  the 
way  was  open  for  the  utterance  of  many  sentiments  which 
under  other  circumstances  the  hierarchy  would  have  visited 
with  swift  and  severe  punishment.  Wyclif  knew  how  to 
take  advantage  of  the  situation.  He  used  his  great  ability 
and  learning  in  a  warfare  against  the  abuses  he  saw  in  the 
Church.  The  pope,  he  held,  was  not  infallible.  His 
bulls  and  decrees  had  no  authority  except  so  far  as  they 
were  based  on  Scripture.  The  functions  of  the  clergy 
did  not  include  ruling,  but  service  and  helping.  For 
such  views  he  was  condemned  by  Gregory  XI.  (1377), 
but   protected    by  Parliament.       He    was,  however,    ex- 


SPIRITUAL  LIFE.  Iqj 

eluded  from  the  university  (1382)  by  the  Earthquake 
Council  and  retired  to  his  parish  at  Lutterworth.  His 
increasing  love  and  dependence  on  the  Scriptures  led 
him  to  translate  them  into  English,  He  was  not  molested 
by  further  persecution  and  died  at  Lutterworth  in  1384.* 
Wyclif's  books  were  carried  into  Bohemia  and  there 
used  by  John  Huss  (1369-1415).  Huss  was  appointed 
Tohn  Hus  professor  of  philosophy  at   Prague  and  began 

his  teaching  upon  the  basis  of  the  views 
of  Wyclif.  The  agitation  which  followed  only  spread  the 
knowledge  and  acceptance  of  Wyclif's  views.  At  this 
juncture  a  political  rupture  between  the  Germans  and 
Bohemians  promised  to  issue  to  the  advantage  of  Huss. 
Wenzel,  the  king  of  Bohemia  advocated  his  cause.  He 
also  gained  the  support  of  the  able  Jerome  of  Prague. 
The  pope  did  indeed  excommunicate  him,  citing  him  at 
the  same  time  to  appear  at  Rome  ;  but  the  favor  of  the 
king,  together  with  that  of  the  people,  enabled  him  to  go 
on  in  spite  of  the  pope.  Even  the  archbishop  of  Prague 
was  obliged  to  tolerate  him.  When  John  XXIII.  offered 
indulgences  for  sale,  Huss  boldly  denounced  the  measure 
as  traffic  in  sin.  The  pope  now  resorted  to  extreme 
measures.  He  laid  Huss'  place  of  residence  under  the 
interdict.  This  led  the  emperor  Sigismund  to  summon 
him  to  the  council  of  Constance,  with  the  promise  of  safe- 
conduct  thither  and  back.  As  Huss  had  himself  made 
his  appeal  "  to  a  council,  to  Christ  and  to  God,"  he  felt 
constrained  to  go.  The  council  condemned  his  teachings 
as  heretical,  the  emperor  failed  to  carry  out  the  promise 
of  safe-conduct,  and  Huss  and  his  companion  Jerome 
were  burned  at  the  stake. 

*  But  his  remains  were  later  exhumed,  burned,  and  the  ashes  thrown  into  a  brook 
tributary  to  the  Avon,  a  fact  which  Wordsworth  has  rendered  into  a  symbol  of  the 
spread  of  Wyclif's  views  : 

"As  thou  these  ashes,  little  Brook,  wilt  bear 
Into  the  Avon,  Avon  to  the  tide 
Of  Severn,  Severn  to  the  narrow  seas, 
Into  the  main  ocean  they,  this  deed  accurst 
An  emblem  yields  to  friends  and  enemies 
How  the  bold  teacher's  doctrine  sanctified 
By  truth,  shall  spread  throughout  the  world  dispersed." 

Eccl.  Sonnets.  Pt.  II.,  xvii. 


1 96  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Meantime  his   followers  had  increased  in  numbers  and 

power    sufficiently    to    defy    the    authority  of    the    pope. 

Upon    the  death   of  ^^'enzel,  their  king,   they 

Hussite  War.  r  in-  ..        c--     •  i  i 

refused  allegiance  to  bigismund  as  one  who 
had  broken  his  word.  This  led  to  the  Hussite  War.  The 
Hussites,  meantime  divided  into  two  parties  the  Calix- 
tines  and  the  Taborites.  The  Calixtines  (also  called  Utra- 
quists)  *  held  first  of  all  that  the  cup  in  the  Eucharist 
should  be  given  to  the  laity  also.  They  held  besides  that 
the  gospel  should  be  preached  to  the  people,  that  the 
clergy  should  return  to  apostolic  simplicity,  and  that  the 
congregation  should  have  the  right  of  punishing  all  moral 
sin.  The  Taborites  were  more  radical  and  rejected  every- 
thing that  could  not  be  grounded  on  Scripture. 
Calixtines  and    They  werc  led  by  the  heroic  Ziska.     The  Ca- 

Tabontes.  ,.       .-'  •'      .         ,  .  •   i         , 

lixtnies  were  enticed  to  reunite  with  the 
Catholic  Church,  apparently  on  their  own  terms  (1433). 
The  Taborites  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Prague 
(1334)  and  the  compact  with  the  Calixtines  proved  a  dead 
letter.  Some,  however,  persisted  in  their  opposition  to 
the  Church  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Reformation 
and  joined  with  its  adherents. 

Another  memorable  attempt  at  reformation  independ- 
ently, however,  of  Wyclif,  and  Huss,  was  made  by  the  en- 
thusiastic    Italian     friar    Terome     (Girolamo) 

Savonarola.  o\  c  1 

Savonarola  (1452-1498).  bavonarola  ap- 
peared in  public  life  as  a  monk,  and  from  1481  as 
the  abbot  of  San  Marco  in  Florence.  In  theology  he 
was  a  follower  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  whose  order  (the 
Dominican)  he  had  joined.  He  began  by  reforming  the 
monastery  over  which  he  was  called  to  preside.  En- 
couraged by  his  success  here  and  by  the  crowds  which 
his  eloquent  preaching  attracted  at  the  Duomo,  he  under- 
took the  reformation  of  Florence.  In  this  work  he  nat- 
urally encountered  the  opposition  of  the  family  of  the 
Medici.  He  claimed  the  power  of  prediction  and  fore- 
told, it  was  said,  the  death  of  Innocent  VIII.,  the  down- 

*The  name  Calixtine  was  applied  from  the  demand  of  this  party  for  the  cup 
(Ca/v.r)  ;  the  name  I'traquist  from  their  insisting  that  the  Lord's  Supper  must  be 
administered  in  both  species  {iitrague). 


SPIRITUAL  LIFE.  1 97 

fall  of  the  Medici,  and  the  invasion  of  Florence  by  the 
foreign  army  of  Charles  VIII  of  France.  The  latter 
event  gave  him  great  power.  The  existing  government  of 
Florence  was  overthrown  and  a  theocracy  with  Savonarola 
at  its  head  was  established.  But  now  the  pope  Alex- 
ander VI.  interfered.  The  reformer  was  summoned  to 
Rome.  Alexander,  in  his  eagerness  to  get  possession  of 
Savonarola,  went  even  to  the  extent  of  offering  him  a 
cardinal's  hat.  But  the  monk  did  not  allow  himself  to  be 
beguiled.  Excommunication  was  resorted  to,  also,  without 
avail.  Finally  the  interdict  was  laid  on  Florence.  Sa- 
vonarola agreed  to  submit  to  the  ordeal  of  fire,  but  ap- 
peared to  withdraw  at  the  last  moment.  The  populace 
wavered  in  their  faith  in  him  and  turned  against  him. 
Bereft  of  supporters  he  was  seized  and  with  two  of  his 
followers  hung  on  the  gallows  and  then  burned.  While 
differing  in  many  particulars  from  the  English  and  Bo- 
hemian reformers,  the  Italian,  like  them,  preached  salvation 
by  faith,  and  apart  from  submission  to  the  Roman  hier- 
archy and  the  use  of  the  Roman  ritual.  Savonarola  had 
denied  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  denounced  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  Church. 


PART  III.    THE  MODERN  PERIOD. 

(A.  D.  1517 .) 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    RISE    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

Among  the  other  works  which  Leo  X.,  in  his  zeal  to 
adorn  Rome  with  good  art,  had  undertaken,  was  the  com- 
pletion of  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  The  build- 
on  "h^slk'or  ^"S  °^  ^'^^^  magnificent  structure  had  been 
Indulgences,  bcguu  by  Julius  II.  in  1506,  but  was  inter- 
rupted and  threatened  with  failure  for  lack 
of  funds  sufficient  to  carry  it  through.  Leo  X.  resorted 
to  a  mode  of  financiering  previously  used  by  other  popes 
under  similar  circumstances.  This  was  the  raising  of 
funds  by  the  sale  of  indulgences.  Germany  seemed  to 
offer  a  specially  inviting  market  for  indulgences.  Under 
the  weak  rule  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  the  papal 
hierarchy  had  managed  to  obtain  an  undisputed  hold  on 
it.  The  pope  divided  Germany  into  three  districts,  and 
committed  one  of  them  to  the  care  of  Albrecht,  archbishop 
of  Mainz  and  Magdeburg.  The  archbishop  was  to  re- 
ceive for  his  services  in  aiding  the  sale  one-half  of  the 
net  proceeds  for  himself.  Under  the  provisions  of  the 
scheme,  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  monk,  who  had  gained 
some  skill  in  the  traffic  of  indulgences  by  experience, 
and  was  moreover  a  persuasive  popular  speaker,  ap- 
peared on   the  borders   of   Saxony  and  set  up  his  trade. 

Here,  however,  he  met  with  unexpected  opposition 
from  Martin  Luther.     In  order  to  enter  into  Luther's  mo- 

199 


200  CHURCH  HISTORV. 

tives  in  this  course  it  will  be  necessary  briefly  to   review 

his  previous  life.  He  was  born  Nov.  lo, 
Martin  Luther's  J483,  at  Eislcben.    His  parents  were  in  humble 

circumstances.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Erfurt,  where  he  came  in  contact  with  several 
young  humanists,  but  was  not  attracted  by  their  frivolous 
manner  of  life.  Nevertheless,  he  studied  the  classics  and 
was  pursuing  advanced  studies,  having  already  received 
the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  when  he  was  alarmed  about 
his  religious  condition  by  the  sudden  death  of  a  friend, 
and  entered  with  all  haste  an  Augustinian  monastery  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  his  parents. 

In  the  monastery  he  continued  his  studies,  especially 
giving  attention  to  the  works  of  Thomas  Aquinas  and 

William  of  Occam,  He  also  here  formed  the 
Martin  Luther  acquaintance  of  John  Staupitz,  a  devout  man, 
Pr^>f°essor'a'?  ^ho  directed  him  to  the  Scriptures  as  the 
Wittenberg.       source  of  light.     Luther  was  ordained  priest 

in  1507,  and  transferred  to  Wittenberg  the 
following  year  to  connect  himself  with  the  new  uni- 
versity in  that  place  (founded  1502).  In  1511,  he  was 
sent  by  his  order  on  a  mission  to  Rome.  It  was 
while  in  the  city  of  the  popes  and  in  the  performance  of 
the  supposed  highly  meritorious  act  of  penance — the 
climbing  of  the  twenty-eight  steps  of  the  Scala  Santa — that 
his  studies  in  the  Bible,  the  teachings  of  Staupitz  and  his 
past  meditations  on  the  subject  of  salvation  were  focused 
in  a  vivid  impression  that  the  external  penance  in  which 
he  was  engaged  was  unavailing  as  a  means  of  justifica- 
tion before  God.  He  seemed  to  realize  the  Scripture, 
"  The  just  shall  live  by  faith."  On  his  return  to  his  post 
at  W' ittenberg,  he  lectured  on  the  epistles  to  the  Romans 
and  to  the  Galatians,  and  on  the  Psalms.  His  religious 
experience  deepened  daily  and  his  powers  matured. 

When  Tetzel  made  his  appearance,  Luther  had  already 
formed  his  views  on  penance  and   indulgences.     He  had 

even  preached  in  15 16  against  indulgences. 
The  Posting  of  gut   the   formal    way    in    which    the    traffic 

the  Ninety-nve  .     ,  i     i     i  •  i-      • 

Theses.  was    Carried   on    led    him   to    a   distinct    act, 

calling  attention  to  his  opposition  to   it  and 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  20 1 

the  grounds  of  such  opposition.  He  nailed  on  the  gate  of 
the  Castle  church  *  at  Wittenberg  ninety-five  theses  or 
propositions,  in  which  he  denounced  the  papal  teaching 
and  proclaimed  the  Bible  teaching  on  the  subject  of  for- 
giveness of  sin.  He  invited  any  one  who  wished  to  con- 
trovert these  theses  to  a  public  disputation  on  a  stated 
occasion.  No  one  took  up  the  challenge  ;  but  the  fame  of 
the  theses  went  abroad. 

Luther  was  summoned  to  Rome,  but  by  intercession  of 

the  elector  of  Saxony,  it  was  agreed  that  his  views  should 

be  investigated  in   Augsburg.     Here,  accord- 

Leipzig  ingly,   in   ii;i8,  he    met  Cajetan,  the    repre- 

Disputation.  =  -"  .  r     ,  r^^l  r  1 

sentative  of  the  pope.  1  he  conference  proved 
fruitless.  Another  attempt  to  take  him  to  Rome,  in  which 
the  pope  used  the  Saxon  Miltitz  as  his  agent,  resulted  in 
a  temporary  truce.  Luther  promised  silence  on  the  sub- 
ject of  indulgences  if  his  opponents  would  also  keep 
silence.  But  as  this  was  impossible  under  the  circum- 
stances, a  disputation  was  appointed  at  Leipzig  and  car- 
ried on  in  15 19.  Luther,  Carlstadt,  an  imprudent  man 
and  more  violent  than  Luther,  and  Eck  on  the  papal 
side,  were  the  disputants.  The  disputation  ended  by 
Luther's  planting  himself  squarely  on  the  Bible  and  re- 
fusing to  accept  tlie  authority  of  popes,  fathers,  or  even 
councils,  to  which  he  had  previously  attributed  some 
decisive  weight. 

There  remained  now  nothing  for  the   pope  to  do  but 
excommunicate  Luther.     This  step  he  accordingly  took 

in  1520.  Luther's  treatment  of  the  bull  of 
Mthm™""'       excommunication  was  symbolical  of  his  final 

rejection  of  the  Roman  yoke.  At  the  head  of 
a  procession  of  students  of  the  university  he  took  the 
bull  out  of  the  city,  and  together  with  a  copy  of  the  canon 
law,  he  threw  it  into  a  fire  specially  prepared  for  the 
occasion.  About  the  same  time  he  assumed  the  task  of 
preparing  the  laity  for  the  rupture  with  Rome  which  he 
saw  was  impending.  In  three  documents  he  laid  before 
the  nation  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  new  move- 
ment.    The  first  of  these  is  the  Address  to  the  German 

*  Schloss-Kirche. 


202  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Nobility^  and  insists  on  the  independence  of  the  German 
nation  from  papal  rule.  The  second,  on  the  BabyIonia7i 
Caplivity  of  the  Church,  is  an  attack  on  the  papal  teaching 
on  the  sacraments.  It  denies  the  sacramental  nature  of 
all  but  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  on  the  Lord's 
Supper  it  denies  transubstantiation  and  asserts  consub- 
stantiation.  The  third,  on  Christian  Freedom,  dwells  on 
the  nature  of  spiritual  liberty  as  given  by  Christ. 

The  labors  of  Luther  now  began  to  be  shared  by  a 
group  of  companions  providentially  raised,  and  endowed 
with  special  gifts  for  the  task.  First  among 
Meianchthon,  thcsc  stands  Philip  Mclanchthon  (1497-1560), 
a  rare  scholar,  who  was  destined  through  his 
logical  acumen  and  wide  scholarship  to  formulate  the 
teachings  of  the  reforming  party.  He  was  the  nephew  of 
the  humanist  Reuchlin,  and  early  showed  an  aptness  for 
classical  studies,  mastering  the  Greek  and  Latin  with 
great  ease.  He  was  made  professor  of  Greek  and  philo- 
sophy in  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  and  at  once  entered 
into  Luther's  ideas  and  gave  him  the  aid  of  his  accurate 
scholarship.  He  was  more  moderate  in  temperament 
than  Luther,  and  could  see  the  good  that  might  exist  in 
an  antagonist's  position.  Another  friend  Luther  found 
in  Ulrich  von  Hutten  (1488-1523),  an  ardent  humanist 
and  too  impetuous  to  be  long  content  with  the  course  of 
Luther. 

In  1521  the  movement  in  the  Church  headed  by  Luther 
had  acquired  such  proportions  that  the  pope  appealed  to 
the  imperial  Diet  to  put  Luther  under  the  ban 
Dietof  Worms,  in  order  that  the  excommunication  might  be 
effectually  carried  out.  As,  however,  he 
could  not  be  condemned,  according  to  German  usage, 
without  being  heard,  he  was  summoned  to  appear  before 
the  Diet  at  Worms.  Luther  was  given  an  imperial  safe- 
conduct  and  made  his  appearance.  On  being  ushered 
for  the  first  time  before  the  emperor  and  the  princes  of  the 
Diet,  he  asked  for  time  to  consider  his  answer.  But  on  the 
next  day  he  made  his  answer  with  firmness,  closing  with  the 
memorable  words  :  "lean  and  will  retract  nothing,  for 
it  is  neithei  safe  nor  expedient  to  act  against  conscience. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 


203 


Here  I  stand  ;  I  can  do  no  otherwise  :  God  help  me  ! 
Amen."  The  Diet  was  presided  over  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  a  firm  Roman  Catholic  by  heredity  and  train- 
ing, and  as  king  of  Spain,  where  the  extreme  blind  submis- 
sion to  the  Roman  Church  was  the  rule,  he  declared 
against  the  toleration  of  Luther.  The  Diet  put  the  re- 
former under  the  ban. 

Thus  excommunicated  by  the  Church  and  outlawed  by 
the  State,  Luther  began  his  return  journey  towards  Wit- 
tenberg. On  the  way  he  was  seized  by  a 
Wartburg.''^^  Company  of  men  and  carried  to  the  fortress 
of  the  Wartburg.  This  step  was  taken  in  his 
interest  by  the  elector  Frederick  of  Saxony  on  the  sup- 
position that  a  period  of  absence  from  the  active  scenes 
of  labor  and  conflict  would  allay  the  excitement  and  giv^e 
Luther  a  better  opportunity  to  carry  on  his  work  later. 
At  the  Wartburg  Luther  was  detained  for  the  space  of  a 
year,  not,  however,  passing  the  time  in  idleness,  but  in 
the  most  useful  of  all  employments,  the  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  German. 

Meantime,  during  his  absence  from  Wittenberg,  Carl- 
stadt  gave  utterance  to  incendiary  sentiments  and  in  his 
zeal  even  led  the  reforming  party  to  acts  of 
The  Zwickau  ^  violent  and  destructive  kind,  such  as  the 
Wittenberg.  breaking  of  images  and  pulling  down  of  altars. 
Reinforced  by  certain  persons  who,  under  the 
name  of  the  Zwickau  prophets,  urged  the  people  to  deeds 
of  violence,  Carlstadt  and  his  adherents  had  in  fact  begun 
a  rebellion  which  imperiled  the  good  cause  at  Luther's 
heart.  He  therefore  decided,  on  learning  of  these  doings, 
to  abandon  his  seclusion  and  its  safety  and  restore  order 
at  Wittenberg.  In  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  elector,  he 
came  forth  and  by  timely  preaching  he  induced  the 
people  to  assume  a  quieter  attitude,  remaining  thence- 
forth in  their  midst. 

The  failure  of  the  decree  of  the  Diet  of  Worms  to  pro- 
duce any  practical  effect  led  Pope  Hadrian  VL  to  demand 
of  the  next   Diet  (at    Nuremberg)  that  this 
Diets  of  Nurem-     dccision  be  enforced,  but  the   Diet   simply 
Speyer.  answered  by  presenting  a  list  of  a  hundred 

grievances   against   the    Roman   see.     An- 


204  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

other  Diet  at  Nuremberg  two  years  later,  in  answer  to  the 
same  demand  made  by  Clement  VII.,  passed  that  the  de- 
cree of  Worms  should  be  executed  "  as  far  as  possible." 
In  other  words,  the  subject  was  remanded  to  the  several 
princes  of  the  Diet.  Meantmie,  political  troubles  were 
brewing,  in  the  midst  of  which  no  decisive  action  could 
be  taken.  Finally  at  a  Diet  in  Speyer  (Spires,  1529),  it 
was  resolved  to  forbid  the  further  spread  of  the  Lutheran 
movement.  Against  this  action  a  "  Protest  "  was  entered 
by  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg, 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick -Liineburg,  the  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  and  the  Prince  of  Anhalt  and  fourteen  cities. 
From  this  Protest  the  name  Protestant  passed  on  the 
whole  movement.  The  movement  also  assumed  hence- 
forth a  political  aspect  of  great  importance. 

In  this  state  of  affairs  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  met  in  1530. 
The  emperor  felt  assured  of  his  power  to  coerce  the  Pro- 
testants ;  yet   he    sought    by    a    final    peaceful    effort    to 
persuade  them  to  return.     The  Diet  was  used 
Diet  of  Augs-    jjg  g^  conference  seeking  for  a  basis  of  agrree- 

burg.  *^  ^ 

ment.  Melanchthon  put  forth  the  Confession 
— the  earliest  and  most  widely  accepted  of  all  Protestant 
creeds — which  has  ever  been  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Augsburg.  But  compromise  and  reconciliation  were 
demonstrated  to  be  impossible,  and  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
is  significant  in  history  for  this  conclusion,  if  for  nothing 
else. 

In  the  meantime  Luther's  marriage  with  Catherine  von 
Bora,  an  escaped  nun,  followed  by  the  marriage  of  other 
clerical    adherents  of  the  Reform,    caused  a 
riage.*"^  Hu^"^     scandal    and    at  the  same  time   widened  the 
Disputes  vvith     brcach    between    Protestantism    and    Rome. 
^""^^  Luther  further  entered  into  controversy  with 

King  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  This  monarch,  in  a  treatise 
meant  to  answer  Luther's  attack  on  the  Church  doctrine  of 
the  sacraments,  assumed  the  role  of  theologian  and  cham- 
pion of  Catholic  doctrine.  The  debate  was  character- 
ized by  the  most  violent  use  of  language  on  both  sides. 
Another  controversy  arose  between  Luther  and  Erasmus. 
The  great  humanist  was  not  opposed  to  the  reformation 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  205 

of  the  Church ;  in  fact,  he  was  himself  doing  all  that  he 
deemed  wise  towards  this  end.  But  he  ex- 
with  Erasmus,  pected  reform  to  come  by  way  of  culture  and 
education,  and  not  by  way  of  theological 
debate  and  schism.  He  lacked  the  religious  fervor  nec- 
essary to  understand  and  take  a  share  in  Luther's  work, 
although  at  first  he  sympathized  with  the  end  in  view. 
The  controversy  between  the  two  men  had  reference 
ostensibly  to  the  question  of  free  will  and  predestination, 
but  became  a  personal  dispute  in  which  they  exchanged 
compliments  in  the  unreserved  fashion  of  the  day. 

Finally  the  Peasants'  War  in  1525  threatened  to  com- 
plicate and  even  imperil  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
The  peasants  of  Germany  had  endured  for 
Peasants'  War.  many  years  grievous  wrongs  and  were  rest- 
less when  the  new  religious  doctrines  and 
the  ferment  produced  by  them  stimulated  the  spirit  of 
rebellion  against  existing  authorities.  There  were  not 
lacking  leaders,  too,  who  pointed  to  the  Scriptures  for  the 
warrant  of  the  course  proposed  by  the  peasants.  Luther 
steadily  resisted  every  effort  to  mix  up  the  cause  of  a 
spiritual  Christianity  with  political  movements.  When 
the  rebellion  broke  out,  he  advised  the  princes  to  put  it 
down  with  a  strong  hand.  He  foresaw  that  in  case  it 
should  succeed  fanaticism  would  reign  and  wild  anarchy 
would  result. 

But  while  Luther  was  guiding  the  opposition  to  the 
papacy    in  Germany,    with    wisdom    and    vigor,    another 
movement  in  the  same  direction  was  growing 
Zwingli.  in  strength  and  importance  daily.     This  was 

led  by  Zwingli  in  Switzerland.  Like  the  re- 
form in  Germany,  this  was  also  occasioned  by  the  sale  of 
indulgences,  though  here,  as  in  Germany,  the  causes  lay 
much  deeper  than  the  occasion,  and  the  movement  was 
bound  up  in  the  zeal  and  wisdom  of  a  great  leader, 
Ulrich  Zwingli.  Zwingli  was  born  in  1484  at  Wildhaus, 
an  obscure  town  in  the  mountains.  His  youth  was  spent 
at  home  and  his  education  taken  at  Basel  and  Berne. 
He  also  became  fond  of  the  classics,  and  was  led  to  ex- 
amine the  Bible  and  to  recognize  its  absolute  authority. 


2o6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  condition  of  Switzerland  led  to  his  taking  a  deep 
interest  in  military  matters,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  the 
affairs  of  the  State.  He  was  made  pastor  of  a  church  at 
Glarus  and  was  thence  transferred  to  Einsiedeln  (15 16). 

It  was  while  here  that  he  came  in  conflict  with 
Hisremoval       ]_\-^q  Roman  Church   in   the   matters   of   indul- 
gences,  taking  a   certain   Samson,  a  seller  of 
indulgences,  as  the  object  of  his  attack.     From  Einsiedeln 
he  removed  to  Ziirich  in  15 19. 

This  position  was  much  more  favorable  for  the  spread  of 
his  views.     He  began  by  expounding  the  Scriptures  to  the 

people,  and  was  listened  to  with  intense  interest 
v?ews^°^^'^    by    multitudes.      Here    in     1523   he  engaged 

in  two  disputations,  successfully  attacking 
the  external  polity  and  worship  of  the  Roman  Church. 
In  1525  he  published  his  Cominentary  on  IViie  and 
False  Religion.  This  served  to  define  his  position  and 
gave  the  keynote  to  the  Swiss  reformation.  From  Zurich 
the  views  of  Zwingli  spread  to  Basel  through  the  efforts 
of  Qicolampadius.  Schaffhausen,  St.  Gall,  and  Berne  also 
adopted  them  and  the  reform  movement  seemed  well 
started. 

The  Swiss  movement,  however,  soon  became   involved 
in  the  political    situation.     A  line  of    division    appeared 

coinciding  with  that  separating  the  mountain 
Ji'i«aons^°"'"   cantons  from  the  cities.     The  highlands  were 

conservative.  The  valley  cities  declared  for 
reform.  The  two  sides  were  organized  and  war  appeared 
inevitable,  but  was  delayed  by  negotiations  and  a  tempo- 
rary truce  (1529). 

The  question    how  far   the   Zwinglian   and    Lutheran 
reforms  were  on  a  common  ground  could  not,  of  course, 

fail  to  be  suggested.  It  was  evident  that 
Zwinglian  Re-  ZwiugU  had  arrived  at  his  conclusions  inde- 
pared  *^*"""  pendently  of  Luther.  The  standpoints  of  the 
Sacramentarian  two  reformers  Were  sHghtly  different.  While 
ontroversy.  Lythei-  took  the  Bible  as  a  corrective  of  abuse 
and  would  therefore  leave  untouched  all  that  was  not  posi- 
tively contrary  to  its  teachings,  Zwingli  took  the  Bible  as  a 
a  source  and  measure  of  construction   anew,  and  would 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  207 

allow  nothing  to  stand  that  was  not  directly  derived  from 
it.  Luther  kept  his  eye  single  on  the  religious  aspect  of 
the  reformation  and  would  not  permit  its  association  with 
political  issues ;  whereas  Zwingli  aimed  at  the  political  as 
well  as  the  spiritual  regeneration  of  his  country.  But  the 
most  troublesome  difference  between  the  German  and 
Swiss  reformers  had  reference  to  the  question  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Luther  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  present  in  the  sacra- 
ment, but  not  by  way  of  the  change  of  the  bread  and  wine 
into  them,  but  rather  by  way  of  the  infusion  of  the  real 
body  and  blood  in  the  consecrated  elements  of  bread  and 
wine,  so  that  they  are  permeated  and  possessed  just  as 
red  hot  iron  is  permeated  by  fire.  Zwingli  on  the  other 
hand  asserted  that  the  sacrament  was  nothing  more  than 
a  commemorative  service  of  the  death  of  Christ. 

To  bring  about  an  understanding  between  the  reformers 
on  this  point,  and  at  the  same  time  to  lead  them  to  a  per- 
sonal acquaintance  with  one  another,  a  confer- 
fSc"e'^^°°'  ence  was  held  at  Marburg.  Luther  was  here 
accompanied  by  Melanchthon,  and  Zwingli  by 
CEcolampadius.  The  subject  was  discussed,  but  Luther, 
choosing  the  text  "This  is  my  body",  would  proceed  no 
further  than  the  literal  interpretation.  The  conference 
broke  up  without  having  effected  the  union  desired. 

The  peace  patched  up  between  the  Catholic  cantons  and 
the  Protestant  cities  of  Switzerland  was  never  meant  by  the 
Catholics  to  be  kept  in  good  faith.     The  cities, 
i^^s'v«rz"rknd!  exasperated  by  the   frequent  violation    of  its 
Death  of  tcmis,  dccidcd  to  coerce  the  cantons.     In  the 

^'^'"^''  war  that  ensued  the  Protestants  were  defeated 

and  Zwingli  was  slain  (1531).  But  at  the  peace  which  was 
concluded  soon  afterwards,  the  right  of  each  canton  to 
decide  its  own  religious  questions  was  conceded.  With 
the  death  of  Qicolampadius,  its  second  great  leader; 
within  a  week  after  the  conclusion  of  this  peace,  the  Swiss 
reformation  fell  back  into  a  slower  pace  and  began  to 
depend  for  its  life  and  growth  more  and  more  on  its  as- 
sociation with  the  movement  in  the  rest  of  Europe. 

One  of  the    sequels  of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  was  the 


2o8  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

formation  of  the  League  of  Smalcald,  1531,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Protestants,  whose  destruction  the 
Smdcaid.  emperor  put  before  himself  as  a  prime  object. 

Peace  of  Nu-  g^t  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  Turks  and 
rem  erg.  ^^^  greatuess  of  the   work  of  putting   down 

the  league,  strengthened  as  it  was  by  the  accession  of 
Denmark  and  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  led  Charles  V.  to 
delay  his  repressive  measures  and  to  come  to  an  under- 
standing with  the  Protestant  princes  in  the  Peace  of 
Nuremberg,  according  to  whose  terms  the  religious  ques- 
tion was  referred  to  a  future  Diet  or  a  council.  This 
peace  gave  Protestantism  an  opportunity  to  make  new 
gains.  Alarmed  by  its  spread,  the  Catholics  banded 
themselves    together  in   the   Holy   League   (Nuremberg, 

1538)- 

Once  more  the  idea  of  a  peaceful  settlement  of  the 
difficulty  came  to  the  front,  and  a  conference  was  held 

at  Ratisbon  in  1541.  Luther  had  no  confi- 
Ratbbon."^'    dence  in  further  efforts  at  reunion  with   the 

Catholic  Church.  Neither  was  he  present  at 
the  conference.  Those  who  did  participate  in  it  were 
certainly  better  qualified  by  their  moderation  and  pacific 
temper  than  any  others  to  effect  an  understanding,  if  it 
were  possible.  These  were  on  the  Protestant  side, 
Melanchthon,  and  on  the  Catholic,  Contarini,  a  man  of 
prudent  and  devout  disposition  who  was  ready  in  some 
respects  to  agree  with  the  Protestants.  But  the  con- 
ference found  no  basis  of  reconciliation  and  broke  up 
without  any  other  effect  than  the  deepening  of  the  con- 
viction that  the  gulf  between  the  parties  was  impassable. 
The  next  five  years  were  passed  in  a  sort  of  armed 
truce.     The  empire  was  distracted  by  fears  of  trouble 

with  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  Protestant 
Lmher°^  Icaguc  was    rent    with    internal     dissensions. 

Luther  died  in  1546.  His  last  days  were 
marked  by  personal  despondency  induced  by  waning 
health.  While  his  faith  in  the  cause  to  which  he  had 
given  his  life  was  undiminished,  and  his  personal  religious 
experience  grew  richer,  his  view  of  affairs  at  Wittenberg 
became  gloomy.     He  was  irritated  by  petty  difficulties, 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 


209 


and  his  friends  were  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  maintain  his 
confidence  in  them. 

Finally  the  war  cloud  burst  in  1546.  The  strife  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Protestants  resulted  in  the  defection  of 
Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxon3\     The  Protestants  were  worsted. 

The  Elector  of  Saxony  was  captured  and  the 
Smaicaidic        Landgravc  of   Hesse  submitted  (1547).     The 
Augsburg         emperor  dictated   the  Augsburg  Interim,  ac- 
"  ^""'  cording  to  whose  terms,  until  the  whole  contro- 

versy could  be  settled  by  a  council,  Protestants  and  Catho- 
lics were  to  live  on  the  basis  of  a  compromise.  This  was 
pleasing  to  neither  party,  and  Maurice  with  the  aid  of 
Melanchthon  modified  it  in  the  interest  of  Protestantism, 
and  presented  it  as  the  Leipzig  Interim.  But  neither  was 
this  to  last  long.  The  same  Prince  Maurice,  disappointed 
with  the  results  of  his  course  in  forsaking  the  side  of  his 
people  and  joining  forces  with  the  emperor,  now  suddenly 
turned  against  his  former  ally,  and,  in  a  rapid  campaign 
brought  the  emperor  to  terms,  forcing  him  in  the  Treaty  of 
Passau  (1552)  to  refer  the  difficulties  to  a  Diet  in  which 
Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics  should  take  part.  This 
Diet,  accordingly,  met  at  Augsburg  in  1555  and  put  an 

end  to  the  war  in   the  celebrated   Peace  of 
Augsburg.         Augsburg.  The  provisions  of  this  peace  were, 

in  the  first  place,  that  every  prince  should 
choose  between  the  Catholic  religion  and  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  and  the  religion  thus  chosen  should  be  that 
of  the  land  over  which  the  prince  ruled.  But,  secondly, 
prelates  or  ecclesiastical  princes  must  first  resign  their 
benefices,  if  they  wished  to  adopt  Protestantism. 
14 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   SPREAD   OF   THE   REFORMATION. 

The  first  region  to  welcome  the  Reformation  after  it 
was  fairly  begun  in  Germany  was  that  inhabited  by  the 
Scandinavian  peoples.  The  unsettled  political 
The  Reforma-  condition  of  the  Scandinavian  countries,  how- 
mark,  ever,  involved  the  religious  movement  in  a  net- 
work of  political  relations.  Christian  II.  of 
Denmark  (1513-1523)  was,  no  doubt,  moved  by  politi- 
cal considerations  when  he  first  favored  Protestantism, 
and  later  adopted  exactly  the  opposite  policy.  When  he 
was  overthrown  and  Frederick  I.,  Duke  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  was  raised  to  the  throne,  this  monarch  also 
changed  his  attitude  towards  the  reform  movement,  and 
from  an  intolerant  Catholic  became  a  friend  of  Lutheran- 
ism,  and  saw  this  form  of  belief  steadily  gaining  ground 
both  among  the  people  and  the  nobility.  Under  Christian 
III.  the  Reformation  was  formally  legalized.  Monasteries 
were  secularized,  superintendents  were  appointed  over 
the  churches,  in  place  of  the  bishops,  though  bearing  the 
name  of  bishops,  and  the  king  himself  was 
Norwat^.  crowned  at  Copenhagen  by  Bugenhagen  a 
Lutheran  divine.  Norway  was  next  drawn 
into  the  revolution  which  swept  over  Denmark,  and  re- 
duced to  a  province  of  that  kingdom,  and  Iceland  a  few 
years  later  joined  Norway  and  Denmark  in  the  column 
of  Protestant  countries. 

The  views  of    Luther    were    carried    into    Sweden  by 
two  students  from  Wittenberg,  Olaf  and  Laurence  Peter- 

210 


THE  SPREAD  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  2 1 1 

sen  (15 19),     The  country  was,  however,  under  the  Danes, 

and  a  political  revolution  was  impending 
guslavus  Vasa.   which  Came  about  in  the  elevation  of  Gustavus 

Vasa,  a  young  noble,  to  the  throne  of  an  in- 
dependent Sweden.  Vasa  favored  Lutheranism  from  the 
beginning.  He  gave  Lutherans  high  offices,  confiscated 
the  vast  property  of  the  Church,  obtaining  thereto  the 
consent  of  the  Diet  of  Westeras  (1527),  and,  by  threaten- 
ing to  resign  the  throne  and  plunge  the  nation  into 
anarchy,  firmly  established  Protestantism  in  the  land. 
So  firmly  indeed  did  Protestantism  take  hold  of  Sweden 
during  his  long  reign  (1523-1560),  that  when  his  successor 
Eric  XIV.  (1560-1568),  who  was  also  a  Protestant  and 
Calvinist  gave  place  to  John  III.  (1568-1592)  and 
Catholicism  was  given  a  full  opportunity  to  regain  the 
land,  it  was  unable  to  do  so,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
Jesuits. 

In  France  Francis    I.  (1515-1547)  was  reigning  when 
Luther  first  blew  the  trumpet  of  reform.     For  more  than 

fifteen  years  the  king  maintained  towards  the 
unde?Francis  i.new  movement  if  not  a  favoring  attitude,  at  least 

a  neutral  one.  His  sister  Margaret,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  took  more  openly  the  side  of  the  reforming  party. 
Lefevre  (Faber  Stapulensis)  had  prepared  the  way  for 
the  reception  of  the  new  teachings  by  his  expositions  of 
the  Scriptures,*  and  Bri9onnet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  appeared 
to  adopt  them.  But  the  Parliament  and  the  Sorbonne 
(a  conservative  school  of  thought)  opposed  these  views 
and  succeeded  in  rousing  a  storm  of  persecution  before 
which  Brigonnet  deemed  it  wise  to  bow.  Finally  the 
king  himself  was  induced  in  1534  to  pronounce  against 
the  heretics,  and  even  take  part  in  putting  some  of  them 
to  death.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  led  to  this 
course  by  the  belief  that  the  unity  of  his  kingdom  and 
with  it  its  prestige  and  influence  were  threatened  by  the 
toleration  of  the  Reformation.!  He  was  not  averse  to  a 
quiet   reformation    of   the    Erasmian   type,    nor    did    he 

*See  Pt.  II.  ch.  XIV. 

t  He  was  accustomed  to  use  the  maxim  "un  roi,  une  loi,  une  foi," 


2 1 2  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

undervalue  the  importance  of  the  political  alliance  with 
the  Protestants  of  Germany  in  his  conflicts  with  his  old 
rival  Charles  V.,  but  he  feared  the  revolutionary  effect 
of  a  reformation  after  the  Lutheran  type,  on  the  stability 
of  the  French  government.  Hence  to  the  end  of  his 
reign  the  policy  which  prevailed  in  France  was  that  of 
tacit  opposition  to  Protestantism. 

But  if  the  attitude  of  Francis  towards  the  new  move- 
ment was  vacillating  and  uncertain,  that  of  his  son  and 
successor  Henry  II.  (i 547-1559)  was  clear 
Under  Henry  ^,^^  determined  from  the  outset.  This 
monarch  united  with  the  Sorbonne  in  the 
effort  to  extirpate  heresy  by  burning  the  persons  of  the 
heretics  as  well  as  their  books.  And  yet  in  spite  of 
these  efforts  Protestantism  grew  in  France  at  a  rate  which 
alarmed  its  opponents.  Persecution  seemed  to  fail  in  the 
hands  of  king  and  clergy. 

In  Great  Britain  Henry  VIII.  had  taken  up  the  cudgels 

in  behalf  o{  the  Catholic  faith  and  embroiled  himself  in  a 

controversy  on  the  sacraments  with  Luther,  in 

In  England       which   lie  was  obliged   to  hear  some  unkind 

under  Henry  ,       .  i        o  r  i  i  •  i 

Yiii.  words  from  the  baxon  reformer;  but  his  zeal 

was  rewarded  by  Pope  Leo  X.  with  the  title 
of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  But  the  adherence  of  Henry 
to  the  Roman  see  was  not  strong  enough  to  stand  the 
strain  of  personal  interest.  As  he  came  to  feel  that  his 
marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon  should  be  annulled, 
and  the  pope  declined,  perhaps  for  reasons  political  and 
prudential,  to  annul  it,  Henry  resolved  to  declare  the  in- 
dependence of  the  Church  in  England  from  the  authority 
of  the  bishop  of  Rome  (1532).  Yet,  while  the  personal 
desire  of  the  king  to  be  freed  from  the  yoke  of  a  marriage 
which  was  contrary  to  the  canons  of  the  Church  and  dis- 
tasteful to  him,  and  permitted  to  wed  the  woman  for 
whom  he  had  contracted  a  strong  passion — Anne  Boleyn 
— was  a  potent  factor  in  determining  his  course,  it  must 
be  noted  that  there  were  other  considerations  of  a  politi- 
cal nature  pointing  in  the  same  direction.  The  national 
independence  of  England  from  continental  European 
disturbances  was  intimately  connected  with  the  ecclesi- 


THE  SPREAD  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  213 

astical  separation  from  Rome.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
the  king  found  in  Cranmer  a  most  willing  auxiliary  to 
his  plans  of  divorce  and  remarriage,  and  in  the  Parlia- 
ment a  ready  response  to  his  request  that  the  headship 
of  the  Church  should  be  vested  in  the  crown  instead  of 
the  pope.  Cranmer  declared  the  marriage  with  Catharine 
of  Aragon  invalid.  The  Parliament  passed  the  Act  of 
Supremacy,  according  to  which  "  the  king, 
Rupture  with     j^j      heirs     and      successors     were     declared 

Kome. 

the  only  supreme  head  on  earth  of  the 
Church  in  England,  called  the  Anglicana  Ecclesia " 
(1534).  The  next  step  was  to  dispossess  the  Church  of 
Rome  of  all  rights  of  property  in  the  land.  This  was 
accomplished  by  the  abolition  of  the  cloisters  and  the 
confiscation  of  their  possessions. 

The    divorce    of    the    king    was    opposed    by   Thomas 
More  and   bishop    Fisher.      For  this   attitude  they  were 

seized  and  thrown  into  the  Tower,  where  after 
Reformation''*  a  year  they  were   taken  out  only  to  be  led  to 

the  block.  The  pope  (Paul  III.)  now  pro- 
ceeded to  excommunicate  Henry  (1535)  ;  the  bull  of  ex- 
communication also  declared  the  subjects  of  the  king  ab- 
solved from  their  allegiance  to  him.  Henry  had  a  wise 
adviser  in  Thomas  Cromwell,  who  urged  the  combination 
of  all  the  Protestant  powers  along  with  France,  England 
taking  the  lead,  in  a  grand  alliance  against  the  pope  and 
the  emperor.  To  prepare  the  way  for  this,  however,  it 
was  necessary  for  the  Protestantism  of  England  to  organ- 
ize internally.  This  was,  accordingly,  done  by  the 
publication  of  the  Great  Bible  and  the  adoption  of 
the  Ten  Articles  (1536).  But  a  casual  glance  at 
these  articles,  shows  that  the  reform  aimed  at  was  not  to 
be  doctrinal  ;  they  teach  salvation  by  faith,  but  declare 
good  works  also  to  be  necessary  ;  further,  the  use  of 
images  in  worship,  invocation  of  saints,  and  auricular  con- 
fession are  in  them  approved,  and  purgatory  accepted  as 
a  reality,  though  the  power  of  the  pope  to  deliver  from 
it  is  denied.  In  1539  the  king  made  up  his  mind  to  force 
the  reactionary  Six  Articles  according  to  which  tran- 
substantiation,  the  administration    of  the   Lord's    Supper 


214  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

in  one  kind  only  to  the  laity,  auricular  confession,  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy,  the  obligation  of  vows  of  chastity, 
and  private  masses  were  made  articles  of  faith.  The 
leaders,  including  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Cromwell,  were 
opposed  to  this  measure.  Thus  feelings  of  alienation  grew 
up  between  the  king  and  Cromwell ;  the  king  was  married 
with  Anna  Cleves  in  accordance  with  the  advice  of 
Cromwell,  and  was  much  disappointed,  a  fact  which 
widened  the  gulf  between  them.  Cromwell  did  not  long 
remain  in  favor.  He  was  accused  of  high  treason  and 
beheaded  in  1540,  and  the  cause  of  reformation  made 
no  further  progress  during  the  remaining  years  of  Henry's 
reign. 

Edward  VI.  (1547-1553)  found  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  Church  which  was  neither  Protestant  nor  Catholic. 
Personally  he  favored  a  thorough  Protestant- 
Edward  vi.  ism.  Cranmer  also,  who  continued,  as  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  to  liold  the  position  of 
greatest  influence  in  the  Church,  was  drawn  into  closer 
and  more  sympathetic  relations  with  the  reformers  of  the 
continent  and  was  ready,  in  accordance  with  the  desire 
of  the  king,  to  resume  and  push  the  work  of  reorganizing 
the  Church  of  England.  The  Six  Articles  were  repealed. 
A  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  put  forth  in  the  English 
language  for  use  by  the  English  Church  (1548).  More 
radical  reformers  like  Ridley,  Latimer,  and  Hooper,  came 
to  the  front.  The  last  named  especially  wielded  great 
influence  and  brought  about  the  abolition  of  many  un- 
scriptural  usages,  such  as  the  setting  up  of  stone  altars  and 
images  in  the  churches.  He  further  opposed  vestments 
and  at  first  declined  to  wear  them  when  appointed  bishop 
of  Gloucester,  a  step  which  threatened  to  cause  a  serious 
rupture  within  the  ranks  of  the  reformers,  as  even  men 
like  Ridley  favored  the  use  of  vestments.  Hooper,  how- 
ever, withdrew  his  opposition  to  the  custom  and  was  con- 
secrated bishop.  His  influence  was  instrumental  in 
bringing  about  a  change  of  opinion  among  the  people,  so 
that  by  1552  it  was  thought  necessary  to  revise  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  in  the  interests  of  greater  simplicity 
and  evangelicalism.  At  the  same  time,  a  creed  was 
formulated    consisting    of    forty-two    articles,    and    the 


THE  SPREAD  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 


215 


Church  seemed  to  be  definitely  committed  to  a  thorough 
reformation.  But  political  disturbances  intervened. 
The  Duke  of  Northumberland,  for  various  reasons  dis- 
satisfied with  the  government  of  Somerset,  who  was  act- 
ing as  Regent,  or  Protector  during  the  king's  minority, 
rose  up  against  him  and  finally  brought  about  his  over- 
throw and  execution.  The  king  himself  died  at  the  early 
age  of  sixteen  (1553). 

A  new   center  for  the   spread  of  the  Reformation  was 
formed  in  the  city  of  Geneva  through  the    operation  of 
different  conditions,    Geneva  was  a  semi-inde- 
Geneva.  pcndcnt  city  governed  by  a  republican  constitu- 

tion. At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
it  passed  through  a  political  crisis,  the  ultimate  result  of 
which  was  to  confirm  and  enlarge  its  liberties  as  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  and  associate 
it  more  closely  with  the  cantons  and  cities  of  Switzerland. 
Protestantism  entered  into  the  community  and  found  the 
way  paved  for  it  in  the  civil  disturbances  that  had  pre- 
ceded. Gradually  its  power  grew  to  such  a  degree  that 
the  Catholic  bishop  was  expelled  and  the  Reformed  faith 
was  adopted  as  the  religion  of  the  State. 

The  man  who  more  than  others  had  labored  to  bring 
about  this  result  was  William  Farel,  a  French  Protestant, 
driven  out  of  his  native  land  by  persecution. 
William  Farel.  Farcl  was  cndowcd  with  the  gifts  of  a  preacher. 
He  fearlessly  proclaimed  his  beliefs  by  the 
force  of  an  eloquence  growing  out  of  unshaken  conviction, 
and  carried  conviction  in  his  audiences.  But  he  lacked 
the  calmness  and  balance  necessary  for  the  administration 
of  affairs.  When  therefore  the  time  came  for  the  Church 
of  Geneva  to  be  organized,  a  different  type  of  man  was 
needed  and  Farel  knew  this.  Such  a  man  he  secured  for 
the  Reformed  Church  of  Geneva  in  the  person  of  John 
Calvin. 

John  Calvin   was  born   at   Noyon,  in   France,  in  1509. 

His   father    was    one  of    the    notaries  of    the    place  and 

secretary  to    the    bishop.     The    education  of 

John  Calvin.      Calviu    as    a    boy    was    committed    to     able 

teachers,  and  when  he  was  ready  for  profes- 


2i6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

sional  studies  he  was  entered  as  a  student  of  law  in  the 
universities  of  Orleans  and  Bourges.  His  habits  of 
study  and  acuteness  of  mind  early  attracted  attention. 
He  was  led  to  examine  the  Scriptures  and  became  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  the  Reformed  views.  Upon  declar- 
ing this  conviction  in  an  address  prepared  for  the  rector  of 
the  university  of  Paris,  he  aroused  such  a  storm  of  opposi- 
tion that  it  became  necessary  for  him  to  fiy  in  order  to 
escape  arrest.  Going  to  Basel  he  continued  theological 
and  Biblical  studies,  and  presently  put  forth  his  Institutes 
of  the  Christian  Religion.  His  motive  was  apologetic. 
By  setting  forth  clearly  before  the  Catholic  public  and 
especially  before  Francis  I.  to  whom  the  work  was  dedi- 
cated, the  beliefs  of  Protestants,  he  designed  to  show  that 
the  Reformed  were  not  the  same  as  Anabaptists  and 
fanatics  whose  efforts  tended  to  destroy  con- 
fnstitutes  fidencc    and    undermine    the    social     order. 

Thus,  he  hoped,  the  king  might  be  induced  to 
prevent  the  persecution  of  his  subjects  of  the  Reformed 
faith.  The  force  and  clearness  of  the  presentation  in  this 
treatise  of  the  views  he  held  and  expounded  as  the  teach- 
ing of  Scripture  commended  the  system  at  once,  and  have 
given  it  a  vast  intiuence  in  the  world  ever  since.  Begin- 
ning with  the  absolute  perfection  of  God  and  the  absolute 
dependence  of  all  his  creatures  on  his  will,  he  builds  up 
a  system  of  theology  with  the  divine  decree  as  its  center, 
and  predestination,  election,  total  depravity,  irresistible 
grace  and  everlasting  perseverance  of  the  elect,  as  its 
necessary  corollaries.  On  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  Calvin  struck  a  middle  way  between  the  Lutheran 
doctrine  of  consubstantiation  and  the  Zwinglian  of  mere 
commemoration.  He  taught  that  in  the  Lord's  Supper 
Christ  is  really,  but  spiritually  present  to  impart  special 
grace  in  a  manner  different  and  more  direct  than  in  any 
other  ordinance. 

It  was  Calvin's  desire  and  purpose   to  continue   a  life 
devoted  to  study  and  seclusion.     From  this   purpose  he 
was  diverted  by  Farel,  when  passing  through 
Genevi^'"  ^^      Geneva  he  stayed  in  the  city  for  a  night,  ap- 
parently.    Farel  on  this  occasion   convinced 


THE  SPREAD  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  2 1 7 

him  that  it  was  his  duty  to  stay  in  Geneva  and  take  the 
lead  of  the  movement  for  reform  there  (1536).  For  the 
next  two  years,  accordingly,  we  find  him  along  with  Farel 
exercising  a  rigid  authority  in  Geneva  and  perfecting  the 
organization  of  the  community  on  a  theocratic  basis. 
But  the  city  was  not  yet  ready  for  his  strict  and  pure 
ethical  system.  He  was  banished  with  Farel,  and  with- 
drew to  Strasburg  and  his  studies.  The  people  of  Geneva 
meantime  attempted  to  conduct  their  affairs  without  the 
disciplinary  and  other  provisions  devised  for  them  by 
Calvin,  and  found  the  results  disastrous  to  the  cause  of 
order  and  peace.  They  resolved  after  a  period  of  three 
years  to  recall  the  banished  preachers  and  once  more 
commit  the  care  of  affairs  into  their  hands.  This  was 
done  in  1541,  and  from  that  date  Calvin  stayed  in  Geneva 
until  his  death  (1564),  taking  an  active  part  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Church  and  of  the  State  through  the  advice 
and  admonition  he  administered  to  the  civil  rulers. 

Calvin  was  opposed  in  Geneva  by  a  political  party 
known  as  the  Libertines.  This  party  was  made  up  of 
two  elements  :  a  religious  element,  of  which 
Libertines.  the  chief  characteristic  was  a  system  of  pan- 
theistic beliefs  accompanied  by  a  lax  view  of 
the  marriage  relation.  This  element  passed  more  par- 
ticularly under  the  name  of  the  Spirituels.  The  other 
element  was  the  political  one,  strictly  consisting  of  such 
natives  as  fretted  at  the  prominence  of  Frenchmen  in 
the  affairs  of  the  city,  and  the  concentration  of  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  magistr^vtes,  with  the  retrenching  of  the 
liberties  of  the  people  that  this  implied.  These  elements 
of  opposition  found  vent  from  time  to  time  on  occasions 
furnished  by  the  life  of  the  State. 

The  most  famous  of  these  occasions  was  the  affair  of 
Servetus.  Servetus  was  a  Spanish  physician  who  had 
devoted  some  attention  to  studies  in  natural 
Servetus.  scicuce,  philosophy  and  theology,    and   pub- 

lished two  books,  one  on  the  Errors  of  the 
Trinity  (1531),  and  another  on  the  Restoration  of  Christi- 
anity (1553).  While  residing  at  Vienne  he  was  arrested 
on  the  charge  of  heresy  contained  in  these  books.     The 


2i8  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

doctrine  of  the  Trinity  especially,  he  attacked  in  lan- 
guage deemed  blasphemous  in  those  days.  He  first 
denied  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  books.  But  as  he 
saw  that  the  case  was  to  be  proved  against  him,  he  es- 
caped from  Vienne,  and  being  recaptured  in  Geneva,  was 
brought  to  trial  before  the  magistrates  there.  Trusting 
in  the  power  of  the  Libertine  party,  he  boldly  reasserted 
his  views  and  defied  Calvin.  The  charges  against  him 
being  sustained,  he  was  condemned  and  burned  October 

27»  1553- 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   COUNTER-REFORMATION. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  did  not  long  remain  un- 
affected by  the  great  movement  which  swept  so  many  out 
of  its  communion.  The  influence  of  Protest- 
Rffomadon^  antism  ou  it  was  twofold — direct  and  reac- 
ontheCatho-  tionary.  As  a  direct  influence  it  acted  by  a 
he  Church.  g^j.^.  ^^  contagion,  producing  in  the  first  place 
a  more  intelligent  piety  within  the  hearts  of  many,  who 
still  wished  to  adhere  to  its  old  form,  then,  a  stronger 
desire  for  purity  in  morals,  and  lastly,  a  clearer  exposition 
and  defence  of  doctrine.  As  far  as  Protestantism  pro- 
duced a  reaction  against  itself  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
communion,  the  tendency  manifested  itself  simply  in  the 
effort  to  suppress  its  spread  in  those  regions  where  it  had 
not  obtained  a  footing,  that  is,  Italy,  Spain  and  France,  and 
to  counteract  its  power  and  restrain  it  in  those  countries 
where  it  was  apparently  in  the  ascendant.  The  coopera- 
tion of  these  two  tendencies  resulted  in  the  Counter- 
Reformation. 

The  local  center  of  this  movement  was  Italy.  This 
country  was  peculiarly  the  battle-ground  of  forces  calcu- 
lated to  draw  it  both  into  and  away  from  the 
Italy  and  the  Reformation.  The  forces  which  worked  in 
Reformation,  j-j-jg  direction  of  a  reformation  in  Italy  were  the 
natural  dissatisfaction  of  a  people  oppressed 
for  centuries  by  an  ecclesiastical  system  of  absolutism, 
and  the  intellectual  awakening  accompanying  the  Renais- 
sance. Both  of  these  forces  were  felt  in  Italy  more  than 
elsewhere  in  Europe,  because  for  both  this  country  was  a 
center  and  its  people   lived   nearest,   so    to    speak,    the 

219 


2  20  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

fountainhead  of  the  influence.  But  on  the  other  hand 
there  were  stronger  forces  at  work  designed  to  draw  Italy 
away  from  Protestantism.  These  were  the  intimate 
association  of  the  papacy  with  Italian  nationality.  With 
all  its  hatefulness,  the  tyranny  of  the  papacy  was  after 
all  the  tyranny  of  an  institution  belonging  to  Italian  soil 
and  bound  up  with  Italian  pride  and  Italian  interests. 
The  leading  men  of  the  country,  moreover,  found  the 
papacy  a  means  of  personal  gain.  Promotion  came 
through  it  and  the  act  of  cutting  one's  self  from  it 
amounted  to  official  suicide.  And  as  to  the  Renaissance, 
it  had  brought  so  much  of  skepticism  and  religious  in- 
difference that  the  fervor  necessary  for  entrance  into  the 
reform  movement  was  lacking.  Finally  Italy  had  settled 
to  a  more  stolid  conservatism  than  Northern  Europe.  The 
result  of  these  counterworking  forces  was  a  new  depart- 
ure in  Catholicism. 

The  earliest  significant  symptom  of  this  new  departure 
was  the  Oratory  of  the  Divine  Love.  This  was  an  or- 
ganization consisting  of  fifty  or  sixty  devout  Catholics  for 
the  purpose  of  cultivating  personal  piety.  Its  members 
were  agreed  in  feeling  the  need  of  a  change  for  the 
better  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  Church.  They  differed, 
however,  widely  in  their  doctrinal  views  as  well  as  in  ref- 
erence to  the  methods  to  be  used  in  bringing  about  the 
moral  purification  of  the  clergy  and  Church. 

The  Oratory  of  the  Divine  Love  issued  in  two  diver- 
gent tendencies ;  on  the  one  hand,  in  the  direction  of  a 
more  biblical  basis  of  doctrine,  and  on  the 
Oratory  of  the  Other,  towards  a  more  radical  opposition  to  the 
Divine  Love,  doctriual  and  administrative  changes  pro- 
posed by  the  Protestants.  The  leader  of 
those  who  promoted  the  first  of  these  tendencies  was 
Contarini.  Contarini  held  and  taught  that  justification 
was  by  faith,  but  did  not  see  the  inconsistency  of  this 
doctrine  with  the  system  of  the  Roman  Church.  He 
established  himself  at  Venice,  which  was  politically 
somewhat  more  independent  than  other  cities  in  Italy, 
and  gathered  a  band  of  followers  about  him.  But  in 
1537  Pope  Paul  III.  offered  him  the  cardinal's  hat,  and  his 


THE  COUNTER-REFORMATION.  22 1 

eflfoi'ts  for  reform  thenceforth  blended  with  zeal  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Church  system. 

Contarini's     influence    combined     with     the     influence 
of  Protestant  literature  imported  surreptitiously  to  Venice 
gave  rise  to  a  more  open  positive   current   to- 
Contariniand     wards  Protcstantism.     Churches  began  to  be 
his  Party.  organized  independently  and  gifted  men  began 

to  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  purifying 
the  religious  atmosphere.  Juan  Valdez,  a  high  official  in 
the  government  of  Naples,  earnestly  supported  the  evan- 
gelical views.  Bernardino  Ochino  began  as  a  Capuchin, 
but  adopted  the  reformed  doctrines  and  was  compelled 
by  persecution  to  fly  to  Geneva  for  safety.  Pietro  Ver- 
migli  (Peter  Martyr),  an  able  scholar  and  canon  regular,  for 
similar  reasons  fled  first  to  Ziirich,  thence  to  Strasburg,  and 
tinalh',  being  joined  by  Ochino,  went  to  England.  A  book 
entitled  Del  Beneficio  di  Crista  Crocijisso  was  put  forth, 
expressive  of  the  views  of  many  who  had  yielded  to 
the  Reformation.  To  the  question,  "  How  can  one  be 
saved  ?  "  this  book  gives  the  answer,  "  Through  Christ 
alone,"  that  is,  by  faith  in  his  merit  working  in  a  holy  life. 
The  book  was  condemned,  all  the  copies  of  it  in  circula- 
tion that  could  be  gathered  together  were  burned  in  heaps 
at  Rome,  and  its  reputed  author,  Paleario,  suffered  martyr- 
dom. 

At  the  head  of  the  second  or  anti-Protestant  wing  of 
the  Oratory  was  Caraffa.      This    leader  found  more  fol- 
lowers than  Contarini.     He  was  raised  to  the 
Caraffa.  Cardinal's    position     at   the    same   time    with 

Contarini  and  joined  with  others  in  advising 
Pope  Paul  IH.  to  institute  reforms,  a  proposition 
which  the  pope  seriously  took  under  consideration  ;  he 
even  called  on  the  leaders  of  the  Oratory  for  a  plan 
(^consilium')  which  he  readily  adopted.  But  nothing  was 
done  until  this  pope  yielding  to  the  general  desire  con- 
vened an  ecumenical  council.  The  emperor  had  re- 
peatedly called  for  this  action  but  without  avail.  Local 
synods  now  began  to  clamor  for  it,  as  at  Sens  (1528)  and 
Cologne  (1536)  and  the  pope  issued  the  bull  calling  it 
together  in  May  1542. 


2  22  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  council  met  three  years  and  a  half  after  the  sum- 
mons for  it  had  gone  forth,  being  delayed  meantime  by 
unforeseen  and  insuperable  obstacles.  The 
Council  of  place  of  meeting  was  the  city  of  Trent.  As 
soon  as  the  sessions  were  opened  it  was  evi- 
dent that  the  members  represented  contiicting  interests. 
There  were  in  it  Gallicans  and  Ultrarnontanes,  Francis- 
cans and  Dominicans,  Moderates  and  Conservatives. 
The  papal  party,  however,  obtained  control  by  the  distri- 
bution of  money  among  the  poorer  prelates.  It  was 
determined  to  take  the  vote  not  by  nations,  but  by 
individuals.  As  the  Italians  were  numerically  in  the 
preponderance  they  dictated  the  decisions.  The  con- 
clusions were  put  in  three  rubrics,  viz.  doctrines,  canons, 
and  decrees  regarding  reformation. 

The  first  subject  taken  under  consideration  was  the 
canon  of  Scripture  and  the  conclusion  arrived  at  on  this 
point  was  "  that  unwritten  traditions,  which 
Decision  as  to  havc  bccn  rcccived  either  from  the  lips  of 
capture.  Christ  himsclf,  or  transmitted  in  the  Church, 
are  all  to  be  accepted  with  respect  and  veneration  equal 
to  that  which  is  due  to  the  Scriptures,"  and  further  "  that 
the  books  of  Holy  Scripture,  including  the  Old  Testament 
Apocrypha,  should  be  used  only  in  the  Vulgate  version 
and  interpreted  not  by  private  individuals,  but  by  the 
Church." 

The  subjects  of  original  sin,  and  justification,  were 
then  taken  up,  and  after  animated  debate,  justification  was 
defined  as  a  subjective,  progressive  process, 
Theological  not  an  instantaneous  declarative  act.  When 
Questions.  ^j^^  subjcct  of  the  sacraments  came  under 
discussion,  before  action  could  be  taken  the  city  of  Trent 
was  visited  by  contagious  disease.  It  was  proposed  that 
the  council  be  transferred  to  Bologna,  but  many,  including 
the  emperor,  were  opposed  to  this  plan  and  preferred  to 
have  the  sessions  suspended  for  a  time  ;  this  was  ac- 
cordingly done  in  1547.  After  an  interval  of  four  years 
the  council  was  reconvened  by  papal  decree  (1551). 

An    effort  was  made,  as  the  council  reopened  its  ses- 
sions, to  obtain  a  representation  of  Protestantism  in  it. 


THE  COUNTER-REFORMATION. 


223 


In   fact    Protestant  delegates  were  ready  to    take    their 

seats  should   any  be  given  them.     But  it  was 

mentsi^'sus-      evident    that    the    animus     of    the    dominant 

pension  of         council  was  agaiust  the  concession  of  anv  rights 

oGSsions  •  y        o 

whatever  to  Protestants,  and  the  council  was 
carried  on  as  before,  as  a  vehicle  of  papal  ideas.  The 
subject  of  the  sacraments  was  again  taken  up.  The 
Eucharist  was  defined  in  the  old  sense.  Transubstantia- 
tion  was  reaffirmed.  The  doctrine  of  Penance  was  form- 
ulated under  the  head  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  and 
defined  as  consisting  of  contrition,  confession  and  absolu- 
tion. Finally,  under  the  subject  of  the  sacraments.  Ex- 
treme Unction  was  defined.  About  one  year  after  the 
resumption  of  its  deliberations  the  council  was  again 
interrupted,  this  time  by  the  successes  of  Maurice.  The 
sessions  were  therefore  suspended  for  ten  years. 

Meantime  cardinal  Caraffa  ascended  the  papal  throne 
under  the  name  of  Paul  IV.  (1555-1559).  His  most  im- 
portant act  was  the  strengthening  of  the  In- 
fumpdln  ^^'  quisition,  thus  setting  up  the  machinery  that 
was  to  fight  Protestantism.  He  estranged 
Ferdinand  I.,  however,  by  opposing  his  elevation  to  the 
empire,  and  exhausted  the  patience  of  the  Roman  people 
by  his  tyranny.  His  successor,  Pius  IV.  (1560-1565), 
adopted  a  radically  different  policy,  and  enjoyed  the  as- 
sistance of  his  nephew  Carlo  Borromeo,  a  man  of  pure  and 
upright  character,  as  well  as  of  splendid  gifts.  During 
the  pontificate  of  Pius  IV.  the  Council  of  Trent  resumed 
its  sessions  (1562)  and  concluded  its  labors.  The  sacra- 
ments of  Orders  and  of  Matrimony,  involving  the  ques- 
tion of  papal  authority  and  the  marriage  of  the  clergy, 
were  disposed  of  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  papal  side, 
and  the  council  ended  its  work  of  doctrinal  definition  by 
reasserting  its  belief  in  purgatory  and  tlie  necessity  of 
the  invocation  of  saints,  the  worship  of  images  and  relics, 
and  the  dispensation  of  indulgences. 

In  the  matter  of  practical  reforms,  the  council  insisted 

that  the  discipline  of  the  Church  should  be   stricter,  and 

that  a  better  education  should  be  required  of 

Practical  Re-     i\-^q  clergy.     This  latter   measure  resulted   in 

greater  care  in  teachmg  from  the  pulpit.     In- 


2  24  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

stead  of  the  gross  and  sometimes  impious  and  revolting 
speculations  of  medieval  monks,  the  subject  matter 
of  preaching  was  made  the  doctrinal  system  of  the 
Church  as  cleared  up  and  condensed  by  the  council. 
Thus  the  Council  of  Trent  became  a  vigorous  agent  as 
well  as  result  of  the  Counter-Reformation.  Ranke  has 
said  that  the  "  Dogma  of  Trent  was  not  the  doctrine  from 
which  Protestants  seceded."  It  is  much  nearer  the  truth 
to  say  that  the  Dogma  of  Trent  is  the  offspring  within 
CathoHcism  of  Protestant  influence.  The  whole  effect 
of  the  council  was  strengthening  to  the  Church.  The 
hierarchy  was  improved  in  moral  tone,  the  doctrinal  sys- 
tem was  put  into  clear  and  concise  form,  vastly  more 
satisfactory  than  the  diffuse  conflicting  statements  of  the 
fathers  in  which  only  it  might  be  found  previously  in 
authoritative  form.  The  decrees  of  the  Council  were 
confirmed  by  papal  bull  in  1564.  They  were  accepted  in 
Spain,  Italy  and  Portugal  without  reservation,  and  par- 
tially in  France,  Hungary  and  the  Catholic  regions  of 
Germany. 

Another  instrument   of  the   Counter-Reformation   was 
the    Inquisition.       This    institution   was    reorganized   by 
Caraffa  in  Italy  and  placed  on  an  independent 
The  Inquisition  footing,    amenable    directly    to    the     pope's 
in  Italy.  authority.     It  was   established   as   a   tribunal 

with  power  to  institute  proceedings  and  execute  sentence 
against  heretics.  Six  cardinals,  entitled  Inquisitors 
General,  were  empowered  to  constitute  branches,  or  sub- 
ordinate tribunals  in  different  locations,  and  to  exercise 
the  functions  belonging  to  the  central  office.  Whenever 
guilt  of  heresy  was  established,  they  inflicted  torture  and 
even  death,  irrespective  of  the  class  of  society  or  employ- 
ment of  the  culprit. 

From  the  persons  of  heretics  the  inquisition  proceeded 

to  their  books.     Caraffa   made  a  list   of  all    the    books 

that  should  be  suppressed.     This  was  called 

Index  Expur-    the   ludexaud  included  all   the  publications 

gatorius.  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^j^^y  publishing  houses,  besides 

many  individual  productions,  among  them  the  very 
Cotisiliu77i  submitted  by  the  Oratorians  to  Paul  III.  out- 


THE  COUNTER-REFORMATION. 


225 


lining  reforms,  a  document  of  which  Caraffa  himself  was 
one  of  the  authors.  Under  Sixtus  V.  (i 585-1 590)  this 
Index  was  so  amended  as  to  include  not  only  whole  books 
but  objectionable  passages  in  books  also.  Thus  it  grew 
to  be  the  Index  Expurgatorius. 

In  Spain  the  methods  of  the  Inquisition  were  more 
thoroughgoing  than  elsewhere.  Here  the  extermination 
of  heretics  assumed  the  form  of  religious  service 
The  Inquisition  or  act  of  faith  {ciiito  da  fe).  A  day  was  set 
in  Spain.  apart  in  which  heretics  were  examined,  and  if 

found  guilty,  burned  with  public  ceremony. 
Protestantism  had  made  some  converts  in  the  cities  of 
Seville  and  Valladolid  ;  in  these  cities,  accordingly,  two 
most  remarkable  autos  da  fe  were  celebrated  in  1559  and 
1560.  The  king  and  royal  court  solemnized  the  occasions 
by  their  presence.  The  condemned  were  given  the  op- 
portunity to  submit  to  the  ministry  of  the  Catholic  priests. 
If  they  did  so,  they  were  strangled  before  being  burned, 
otherwise  they  must  endure  the  tortures  of  being  cast 
alive  into  the  flames.  There  was  no  safety  even  for  a 
suspect,  except  in  flight  to  other  lands.  Thus  Spain  lost 
some  of  her  most  valuable  sons. 

Simultaneously  with  the  revival  of  zeal  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  growing  out  of  it,  there  was  a  revival  in 
monasticism.  Old  orders  were  reorganized 
New^Monastic  and  given  a  new  impetus.  Matteo  de  Eassi  put 
new  life  into  the  Franciscan  order  by  raising 
within  it  the  Capuchins.  Jean  de  Barriere  stimulated  the 
Cistercians  to  new  activity.  A  new  society  was  founded 
by  Gaetano  de  Thiene  in  conjunction  with  Caraffa,  and 
called  the  order  of  the  Theatins,  having  as  its  main  ob- 
ject the  education  of  the  clergy.  Filippo  Neri  organized 
the  priests  of  the  Oratory,  chiefly  for  the  purposes  of 
studying  the  Bible,  and  prayer. 

But    by  far    the    most    important    and    aggressive    of 

the    new    organizations    was  that    founded    by  Ignatius 

Loyola  (1491-1556).     Loyola  was  a  Spaniard 

The  Jesuits:       who,   while  Serving  his    country  against    the 

French,  received,  in  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  a 

wound  and  was  compelled  to  spend  some  time  in  con- 


226  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

finement.  He  read  during  this  period  the  history  of  the 
saints,  and  was  moved  to  dedicate  himself  as  a  spiritual 
knight  to  the  service  of  the  Ploly  Virgin.  He  moreover 
conceived  the  plan  of  a  new  order  and  laid  it  before  his 
friends  and  associates  at  Paris,  among  whom  were  Xavier, 
Faber,  Lainez  and  others. 

These  men  banded  themselves  together  under  the  head- 
ship of  Loyola,  and  resolved  to  spend  their  lives  in  the 
Holy  Land  in  the  effort  to  convert  the  Saracens.  They 
took  pledges  to  observe  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience 
to  the  pope.  The  order  was  sanctioned  in  1540;  but 
instead  of  being  allowed  to  go  to  the  Holy  Land,  inas- 
much as  they  had  put  themselves  under  the  direct  control 
of  the  pope,  they  were  assigned  the  task  of  fighting 
Protestantism  in  Europe.  They  were  ordained  to  the 
priesthood,  and  undertook  to  preach,  hear  confessions, 
manage  consciences,  and  educate  the  young. 

The  constitution  of  the  order  was  matured  upon  the 
basis  furnished  by  Loyola  himself  in  his  book,  The 
Spiritual  Exercises.  In  order  to  enter  the 
Constitution.  Society  a  candidate  must,  for  the  space  of  four 
weeks,  train  himself  to  the  habit  of  withdraw- 
ing from  the  world,  resisting  its  enticements,  realizing 
through  the  imagination  the  value  of  spiritual  exercises, 
and  renouncing  one's  own  will.  After  this  preparation 
the  candidate  must  pass  through  four  stages  into  full 
membership,  viz.,  the  novitiate,  the  scholastic  stage,  the 
coadjutorship,  and  the  full  profession.  Within  the  society 
every  member  must  yield  absolute  and  unquestioning 
obedience  to  his  superiors.  But  the  whole  society  is 
more  than  any  member,  even  the  president,  and  for  suffi- 
cient reasons  the  president  himself  might  be  disciplined 
or  deposed. 

The  ethical  principles  of  the  Jesuits  are :  (i)  The 
doctrine  of  probabilism,  or  that  it  is  sufficient  to  act  upon 
an  opinion  of  probable  truth.  (2)  The  sanctification  of 
the  means  by  the  end.  (3)  The  right  to  make  mental 
reservations.  (4)  The  distinction  between  theological 
obedience  and  philosophical  obedience,  and  (5)  The 
power  of  the  people.     This  last  principle  laid  them  open 


THE  COUNTER-REFORMATION.  227 

to  suspicion  of  working  against  the  princes,  and  brought 
them  into  political  conflict  with  rulers. 

In  obedience  to  the  pope's  desire  the  Jesuits  began  to 
work  against  Protestantism  at  once.     They  chose  Sweden 

as  their  base  of  operations.  By  intrigue  and 
Labors.  deception   they   drew  king  John   III.   into    a 

secret  Romanism  which  he  tried  to  impose  on 
the  country,  under  their  direction.  But  the  popular  feel- 
ing was  too  strong  for  the  success  of  the  scheme.  Charles 
IX.  put  an  end  to  the  work  of  the  order  in  Sweden  by 
legislation  against  Roman  Catholicism.  In  Germany  the 
success  of  the  order  was  greater.  In  Bavaria,  especially, 
they  managed  to  arrest  the  progress  of  Protestantism,  and 
fixed  that  country  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  But  the 
Jesuits  did  not  limit  their  activity  to  political  intrigues. 
They  realized  from  the  beginning  the  importance  of  early 
impressions  on  the  mind,  and  systematically  labored  to 
obtain  control  of  the  educational  centers  of  Europe. 
Besides  elaborating  a  strong  scheme  of  lower  grade 
education,  they  took  possession  by  degrees  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Vienna  and  Prague  and  exerted  thence  a  vast 
influence. 

The   ambition   of  the  early   Jesuits,  however,  was  not 
bounded  by  the   limits  of  Europe  ;  they  outlined  a  plan 

of  foreign  missionary  work,  which  looked  for- 
Missions.  Ward  to  nothing  short  of  the  conversion  of  the 

^^'''"-  whole   world  to   the    Roman    Catholic   faith. 

Mohammedans,  Pagans,  Christians  of  every  name  \yere 
to  be  brought,  according  to  this  grand  conception,  into 
subjection  to  the  master  of  the  order,  the  pope.  They 
planted  their  mission  stations  among  the  Oriental  churches 
of  the  Nestorian,  Armenian,  Coptic,  and  Abyssinian  com- 
munions. They  entered  India  through  the  trading- 
stations  of  the  Portuguese.  The  leader  at  this  point  was 
Xavier.  Between  1542  and  1552  he  baptized  scores  of 
thousands  at  Goa,  Travancore  and  through  the  southern 
portion  of  India  in  general.  The  reasons  for  this  suc- 
cess were,  probably,  first  the  emotional  mode  of  Xavier's 
presentation  of  Christ  as  the  great  sympathizer  with 
human  woe.     The  religion  of  Buddha,  by  cultivating  this 


2  28  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

side  of  Indian  character,  had  paved  the  way  for  the  mis- 
sionaries' success.  But  Xavier  also  used  a  large  degree 
of  accommodation  to  heathenism  in  his  preaching.  So 
long  as  the  heathen  took  upon  himself  the  name  of  Christ 
and  submitted  to  the  ordinance  of  baptism,  he  was 
allowed  to  retain  practicall}'  the  whole  of  his  heathenism. 
From  India  Xavier  passed  into  Japan,  and  in  a  short 
time  reported  a  church  of  600,000.  Thence  he  passed  into 
China;  where,  dying,  he  left  the  work  in  the  hands  of 
successors  who  carried  it  on  into  the  seventeenth  century. 
Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  (1622)  the  Congregation 
De  Propaganda  Fide  was  formed  in  order  more  systematic- 
ally to  carry  on  this  work.  A  school  for  training  mission- 
aries was  soon  attached  to  the  Congregation,  called  the 
College  of  the  Propaganda,  and  proved  a  most  efficient 
means  of  reinforcing  the   mission  stations. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

STRUGGLES  OF  PROTESTANTISM  ON  THE  CONTINENT. 

In  1555  Charles  V.,  wearied  by  constant  wars  and  un- 
remitting cares,  laid  aside  the  responsibilities  and  honors 

of  public  life  and  betook  himself  to  a  monas- 
ch'^'rsv""^     tery.     The  empire  passed  into  the  hands  of 

Ferdinand  I.  (1556-1564)  and  the  domains 
which  he  ruled  by  virtue  of  dynastic  control  in  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands,  were  inherited  by  his  son  Philip 
II.  (1555-1598)-  So  long  as  Charles  held  sway  in  the 
Netherlands  the  only  incidents  to  which  the  Reformation 
led  in  those  provinces  were  the  persecutions  of  those  who 
declared  their  adherence  to  it.  Charles  issued  a  series 
of  edicts  called  placards,  aiming  at  the  extinction  of  the 
Reformation. 

Philip    II.  was   more    rather    than    less    inclined    than 
Charles  to  exterminate  Protestantism  from  his  dominions. 

Moreover  in  the  Netherlands,  unlike  his  lather, 
S^''NetheriandsJ''t:  was  not  popular,  but  as  a  Spaniard  and  on 

account  of  his  personal  peculiarities,  distrusted 
and  feared.  He  ruled  the  country  through  regents,  and 
made  the  mistake  of  selecting  not  some  of  the  native 
nobles  to  act  in  this  capacity,  but  Margaret  of  Parma 
jointly  with  Granvelle,  bishop  of  Arras.  To  aggravate 
the  alienation  between  himself  and  the  nobles  and  people 
caused  by  this  step,  Philip  further  resolved  on  the  creation 
of  a  large  number  of  new  bishoprics.  These  bishoprics 
were  to  be  clothed  with  inquisitorial  functions.  What 
the  king  aimed  at  was  the  utter  extirpation  of  heresy,  and 
he   could   only   depend  on  such  representatives  of   his 

229 


230 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


policy  as  the  new  regent  and  the  bishops  to  execute  his 
will. 

Of  the  native  nobles  the  most  prominent  were  William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  counts  Egmont  and  Horn. 
William  was  the  offspring  of  Lutheran  parents, 
Holla  "d""^"^  but  his  training  had  been  altogether  Catholic. 
He  was  befriended  by  and  returned  the 
friendship  of  Charles  V,  He  broke  away  from  Philip, 
however,  when  he  discovered  that  the  king  was  intent 
through  fair  means  or  foul  to  overrule  the  will  of  the 
people  and  nobles  of  the  Netherlands,  and  reduce  the 
land  to  a  mere  dependency  of  Spain.  His  course  was 
thus  determined  at  first  by  patriotism.  Later  he  adopted 
the  Reformed  faith. 

The  occasion  for  the  open  break  between  the  nobles 
and  Philip  was  the  establishment  of  a  branch  of  the  in- 
quisition in  the  land.  Some  five  hundred  of 
Phmp.^'''^  them  banded  themselves  in  the  Compromise, 
a  compact  whose  sole  aim  was  resistance  to 
the  Spaniard  (1566).  William,  unable  to  indorse  the  plans 
of  his  fellow  nobles,  withdrew  from  the  country ;  but 
when  Piiilip  by  the  use  of  false  promises  enticed  Egmont 
and  Horn  into  his  power  and  had  them  beheaded,  William 
returned  and  was  put  at  the  head  of  the  movement. 
Meantime  a  wave  of  iconoclasm  swept  over  the  land  and 
lashed  both  parties  to  open  war.  Philip  sent  the  Duke 
of  Alva  with  an  army  of  10,000  Spaniards  to  put  down 
the  nobles.  Alva  established  the  Bloody  Council  and 
resorted  to  horrible  atrocities  in  order  to  intimidate  the 
people.  But  though  he  destroyed  and  persecuted,  he 
was  unable  to  quell  the  spirit  of  rebellion.  He  was  re- 
called and  succeeded  by  Requescens,  and  later  by  Don 
John.  But  neither  were  these  leaders  able  to  suppress 
the  rising  spirit  of  nationality,  now  distinguished  by  the 
additional  trait  of  a  new  faith.  William  obtained  several 
victories  by  land  and  by  sea,  and  in  1576  managed  to 
unite  the  provinces  under  the  Pacification  of  Ghent. 
According  to  the  compact  so  called,  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  provinces  made  common  cause  against  the 
Spaniards. 


STRUGGLES  OF  PROTESTANTISM  ON  THE  CONTINENT.    23! 

Alexander  of  Parma  was  now  appointed  by  Philip   to 
retrieve   some    of   the    losses    of    Spain    under    the  pre- 
ceding   regents.       He     did    indeed    succeed 
Formation  of     [^    breaking    the    Pacification    of    Ghent    by 
Republic!         drawing  the  Catholic  provinces  out  of  it,  but 

this  only  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Utrecht 
Union,  1579,  which  ultimately  grew  into  the  Dutch 
Republic.  Meantime  WilHam  himself  was  outlawed. 
Six  attempts  to  assassinate  him  were  made  under  the 
stimulus  of  the  promise  of  a  bonus  to  be  paid  by  Philip 
to  his  murderer,     A  seventh  proved  successful. 

But  William  had  laid  the  foundations  deep  and  strong, 
and.  his    son   Maurice   carried    on   the   work   of  building 

the  superstructure.  After  twenty-five  years, 
Prince  Maurice,  mostly  of  bloody   war,  this  prince  succeeded 

in  1609  in  ridding  the  land  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  Holland  was  recognized 
as  independent  (1648). 

In  France,  just  as  Henry  II.  was  making  a  determined 
effort  to  annihilate  Protestantism,  his  life  was  cut  short 

by  accident.  With  the  accession  of  Francis 
H?nr"iT'^^'^     II.,  Catherine  de    Medici    and  the   house   of 

Guise  came  into  prominence.  The  king  fell 
completely  into  the  power  of  the  two  brothers,  Francis 
Duke  of  Guise  and  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine.  The  Bour- 
bons and  the  Chatillons,  whose  voice  in  the  government 
should  have  had  more  weight  than  that  of  the  Guises, 
were  drawn  into  the  Protestant  fold.  Political  motives 
became  inextricably  mixed  with  the  religious  situation. 
The  Huguenots  came  forward  as  a  political  party.  In 
the  conflict  which  naturally  followed,  the  heroic  qualities 
of  the  admiral  Coligny  came  into  play.  But  the  king 
was  on  the  side  of  the  Catholics  and  the  Guises,  and  was 
preparing  for  a  definite  and  vigorous  effort  at  the  sup- 
pression of  Protestantism  when  he  suddenly  died  (1560). 
With  the  accession  of  his  brother  to  the  throne,  the 
aspect  of  affairs  was  slightly  altered.  Charles  IX.  (1560- 
1574)  was  not  of  age,  and  his  mother,  Cathe- 
charies  IX.       riuc    dc  Medici   acted   as   regent.     She   was 

jealous  of  the   power  of  the   Guises  and  not 


232  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

over  scrupulous  about  the  means  she  used  in  securhig 
her  ends.  The  Protestants  could  help  her  in  her  plans 
to  obtain  complete  control  as  against  the  Guises.  For 
some  time  therefore  Protestantism  was  unmolested.  At  a 
conference  held  at  Poissy,  1561,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
bring  the  parties  to  a  peaceful  reunion.  Beza  here  pre- 
sented the  cause  of  the  Reformed  ;  and  while  the  con- 
ference did  not  accomplish  the  end  sought  through  it,  the 
edict  of  St.  Germain,  which  closely  followed  it,  ofificially 
recognized  Protestantism  and  legalized  it  within  certain 
narrow  limitations. 

But  the  Guises  would  allow  no  toleration  to  the  Hugue- 
nots.    Scarcely  two  months  had  passed  since   the  issuing 

of  the  edict  of  St.  Germain  before  they  vio- 
Germlin*  ^''      latcd    it    treacherously    in     the     massacre    of 

Vassy.  Thus  the  civil  war  was  renewed  with 
greater  violence  than  ever.  The  Huguenots  were  de- 
feated at  Dreux  (1562),  and  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  assas- 
sinated by  one  of  their  number.  Twice  the  war  was  in- 
terrupted and  twice  renewed  by  the  violation  of  the  terms 
of  peace.  Finally  in  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain  (1570), 
the  terms  of  a  lasting  agreement  were  reached.  Coligny 
returned  to  the  royal  court  and  was  well  received  by  the 
king  and  by  Catherine  de  Medici. 

The   noble  qualities  of  the  great  Huguenot  began  to 
draw  the  admiration  and  respect  of  the  young  king.     The 

jealousy  of  the  queen  mother,  allayed  for  a 
Massacre  of      {[me  by  the  lapse  of  the  Guises,  was  roused 

St.  Bartholo-  i,-  i  •       ^  /-•<    ^•  oi 

mew.  and  directed  agamst  Coligny.     She  was  recon- 

ciled to  the  Guises  and  by  their  aid  planned 
the  memorable  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  On  Sunday 
the  24th  of  August,  1572,  which  was  the  day  of  St.  Barthol- 
omew, at  a  concerted  signal,  a  general  massacre  of  Prot- 
estants was  begun  in  Paris  and  spread  to  most  of  the 
cities  of  the  realm.  Henry  of  Guise  took  upon  himself 
the  murder  of  Coligny  and  executed  his  purpose  in  a  most 
brutal  manner.  The  number  of  Protestants  slain  has 
been  estimated  at  from  twenty  thousand  to  one  hundred 
thousand.  The  Catholics  throughout  Europe  did  not  at- 
tempt to  conceal  their  approval  of  and  joy  at  this  infamous 


STRUGGLES  OF  PROTESTANTISM  ON  THE  CONTINENT.    233 

piece  of  treachery.     It  was  even  celebrated  with  2e  Dennis 
at  Rome,  by  order  of  the  pope. 

The  king  Charles  IX.,  who  had  against  his  will  given 
his  consent  to  the  massacre,  died  two  years  later  (1574), 
insane  with  remorse.  His  brother  Henry  HI. 
Henry  III.  (1574-1589)  began  as  an  implacable  enemy  of 
the  Huguenots  and  an  active  participant  in 
the  plot  of  St.  Bartholomew.  But  he  changed  his  policy 
for  a  neutral  or  comprehensive  one,  and  became  the  fast 
friend  of  his  kinsman,  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  was  now 
the  leader  of  the  Protestants.  Henry  of  Guise  organized 
the  Catholic  League  to  put  down  Protestantism.  When, 
in  15S4.  by  the  death  of  the  direct  heir  to  the  throne, 
Henry  of  Navarre  was  left  next  in  line  of  succession,  the 
League  made  it  its  object  to  prevent  his  ever  reigning. 
The  king  became  jealous  and  caused  the  assassination  of 
Guise.  But  he  was  himself  assassinated  by  a  par- 
tisan of  Guise,  and  thus  the  crown  came  to  Henry  of 
Navarre. 

Henry  IV.  (1589-1610)  pressed  his  claim  to  the  throne 
successfully,  in  spite  of  the  Catholic  League,  but  wishing 
to  rule  over  a  contented  people,  he  yielded  to 
Henr>'  of  \\-^q  entreaties  of  his  Catholic  friends  and  ad- 

Edict  of  Nantes.visers  and  went  over  to  the  Catholic  com- 
munion in  1593  without  formality.  But  Henry 
wished  his  Protestant  subjects  to  be  content  also,  and  in 
the  edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  granted  them  the  liberties  for 
which  they  had  fought  so  heroically.  Under  this  docu- 
ment as  a  Magna  Charta  they  enjoyed  toleration  for 
nearly  a  century. 

In  Germany  both  Catholics  and  Protestants  manifested 
dissatisfaction  with  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Augsburg. 
The  Calvinists  especially  could  not  live  content  under  this 
peace.  Their  very  existence  was  of  doubtful  legality,  as 
the  peace  only  recognized  the  adherents  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession.  These  tokens  of  discontent  remained,  how- 
ever, below  the  surface  for  fifty  years  or  more.  The  first 
occasion  on  which  open  hostilities  between  Protestants 
and  Catholics  broke  out  was  in  the  case  of  Donauworth. 
This  free  city  was  put  under  the  ban  by  the  emperor 


234 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


Rudolph  II.  because  its  citizens  had  broken  up  a  Roman 
Catholic  procession.  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  seized  the 
city  in  execution  of  the  ban  and  annexed  it  to  his  own 
domains  (1607). 

Anticipating  further  troubles,  the  Protestants  formed 
the  Protestant  Union  (1608).  The  Catholics  followed 
the  example  by  organizing  the  Catholic  League 
Thfrr"Yfare''^^(^^°9^"  During  the  same  year  Rudolph  put 
War.  forth     the    Letter      of     Majesty,     extending 

materially  the  privileges  of  the  Protestants  of 
Bohemia.  He  allowed  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  to 
adopt  the  Utraquist  confession  of  1575,  and  bestowed  on 
the  knights,  the  lords  and  the  royal  cities  the  right  of 
building  churches.  But  Rudolph  was  being  gradually 
supplanted  by  his  brother  Matthias  (1612-1619),  who 
was  bound  by  oath  not  to  molest  the  Protestants  of 
Bohemia.  Yet  in  violation  of  this  oath,  he  forbade  the 
building  of  a  Protestant  church.  The  Protestant  Union 
interfered  in  behalf  of  the  Bohemians,  and  a  war  was 
begun  which  it]  various  parts  and  phases  lasted  for  thirty 
years. 

The  first  phase  of  the  Thirty-Years'  War  lasted  from 
1618  to  1623,  and  was  concerned  with  the  status  of  Prot- 
estantism in  Bohemia.  The  Protestant 
.Second"  Periods.  Union,  Under  the  generalship  of  Mansfeld, 
obtained  some  decided  advantages  at  first, 
but  were  worsted  and  the  struggle  seemed  about  to 
end  in  the  transfer  of  the  electoral  power  from  the 
Palatine  to  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.  At  this  point  the 
king  of  Denmark  interfered  in  behalf  of  the  Palatine  and 
Protestantism.  This  ushered  the  second  phase  lasting 
till  1629.  The  brilliant  Wallenstein  was  secured  to  con- 
duct the  war  against  Christian  of  Denmark  and  the  Prot- 
estants. The  Catholics  seemed  again  on  the  point  of 
obtaining  the  final  decisive  victory  when  the  emperor  saw 
fit  to  conclude  peace  with  Christian  and  issue  the  Edict 
of  Restitution,  reenacting  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  and 
definitely  limiting  it  to  the  adherents  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession. 

The  execution    of   the   Edict  of   Restitution  was  com- 


STR  UGGLES  OF  PROTESTANTISM  ON  THE  CONTINENT. 


235 


mitted  to  \\'allenstein.  It  was  no  easy  task,  as  the  Prot- 
estants began  to  regard  it  as  the  first  step  in  a 
Adoiphus.  process  which  would  end  in  the  extinction  of 
their  form  of  faith.  Accordingly  when  Gus- 
tavus  Adoiphus  of  Sweden  landed  in  Germany,  they  rallied 
about  him  and  in  the  battle  of  Leipzig  obtained  a  victory 
over  Tilly.  Gustavus  Adoiphus  was  an  earnest  Protes- 
tant and  was  led  as  much  by  religious  zeal  as  by  political 
motives  in  coming  to  the  succor  of  German  Protestantism. 
The  third  phase  of  the  Thirty-Years'  War,  ushered  by  his 
appearance  on  the  scene,  was  a  triumphal  march  in  so  long 
as  he  lived.  But  unfortunately  he  fell  in  the  battle  of  Liit- 
zen  (1632),  and  the  Protestants  saw  themselves  compelled 
once  more  to  submit  to  an  ill-defined  modus  vivendi  in  the 
Peace  of  Prague  (1535). 

Meantime  Richelieu  perceived  that  the  successes  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg  were  to  prove  injurious  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  France  in  Europe.  Catholic  as 
Richelieu.  he  was,  therefore,  and  strenuous  within  France 
to  put  down  Protestantism,  he  threw  the 
weight  of  the  foreign  policy  of  France  into  the  scales 
against  Catholicism  and  in  favor  of  the  Protestants  in 
the  empire.  In  the  fourth  and  last  phase  of  the  Thirty- 
Years'  War  (1635-1648),  which  degenerated  into  a  bar- 
barous pillaging  expedition,  the  French  statesman  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  the  empire  to  the  necessity  of  clos- 
ing the  struggle  permanently  in  the  Treaty  of  West- 
phalia. 

The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  provided  first  of  all 
for  the  designation  of  a  year  which  should  be  considered 
the  "  normal  year."  This  was  fixed  as  1624. 
West'phaiia.  Whatever  the  faith  of  a  state  was  during  tiie 
normal  year,  it  was  to  remain  thenceforth. 
Lutheranism  and  Calvinism  were  to  be  recognized  as 
equal  in  rights  to  Catholicism.  The  imperial  power  was 
limited  by  the  enlargement  of  the  powers  of  the  Diet  to 
which  Sweden  was  admitted  as  a  member.  Holland  and 
Switzerland  were  recognized  as  independent,  and  finally 
France  was  given  territorial  concessions  in  Alsace  and 
access  to  the  Rhine.     This  Treaty  could  not  fail  to  make 


236  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

an  epoch  in  European  history.  Its  chief  consequence, 
however,  was  the  establishment  of  the  Reformation  on  a 
strong  foothold. 

The  Oriental  churches  remained  in  a  stationary  con- 
dition theologically  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
Nestorians  settled  in  Persia,  especially  in  the 
ChurchTs"'^  region  around  lake  Oroomiah  ;  the  Jacobites 
in  Syria,  and  the  Coptic  and  Abyssinian 
churches  continued  in  the  beaten  paths  opened  by  their 
respective  predecessors  in  antiquity.  The  patriarchate 
of  Constantinople  also,  after  the  schism  of  the  eleventh 
century,  lapsed  into  lethargy.  When  Protestantism  arose 
in  the  sixteenth  century  an  effort  was  made  to  find  a 
common  platform  for  union  with  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
common  opposition  of  both  the  systems  to  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope.  But  the  essential  differences  between  Greek 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism  were  too  great  to  admit 
of  the  union  desired. 

A  definite  effort  was  made,  however,  to  introduce 
Protestantism  into  the  Church  of  the  East  by  Cyril  Lucar, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  (1568-1638). 
Cyril  Lucar,  Lucar  was  a  native  of  Crete  and  a  member  of 
Constantinople,  the  Greek  Church  ;  but  having  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  Western  Europe  he  came  to  the 
conviction  that  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  Reformed 
churches  of  the  Calvinistic  type  were  more  in  accordance 
with  the  teachings  of  the  Scriptures  than  any  other  form 
of  Christianity.  On  his  return  from  his  travels  his  learn- 
ing and  experience  won  for  him  the  position  of  patriarch 
of  Alexandria  (1601).  From  this  position  he  was  later 
promoted  to  the  higher  patriarchate  of  Constantinople 
(162 1).  He  now  sought  to  introduce  the  Reformed 
doctrines  into  the  Greek  Church.  But  the  Jesuits  who 
were  quick  to  perceive  the  consequences  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  cause  from  the  conversion  of  the  Greek  world 
to  the  Reformed  faith,  if  it  should  ever  occur,  compassed 
his  deposition,  and  finally  his  execution,  on  the  charge  of 
high  treason,  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CHURCHES   OF   EXGI>AXD    AND   SCOTLAND. 

When   Edward  VI.  died,  in   1553,  the  crown  reverted 
to  Henry  VIII. 's  oldest  daughter,  Mary.     As  the  daughter 

of  Catherine  of  Aragon,  she  was  not  only  a 
Acwssion  of      Catholic,  but  must  have  looked  at  the  whole 

movement  as  a  source  of  personal  offence, 
since  it  made  her  own  status  a  doubtful  one.  She  lost  no 
lime  in  putting  forth  efforts  for  the  restoration  of  Cathol- 
icism. She  displaced  the  married  clergy,  abolished  the 
Prayer  Book,  renounced  the  supremacy  of  the  national 
Church,  and  took  measures  to  enforce  the  laws  against 
heresy. 

The  last  of  these  steps  led  to  a  series  of  persecutions 
which    justly    fastened  the  adjective    Bloody   to    Mary's 

name.  Among  the  most  distinguished  victims 
Persecutions,     of  these  persecutions  were  such  men  as  Ridley, 

Latimer  and  Hooper,  all  of  whom  were  burned 
at  the  stake.  Cranmer  was  soon  to  follow,  but  did  not, 
like  them,  in  enduring  his  martyrdom,  display  the  spirit  of 
heroism.  He  was  induced  to  sign  a  recantation,  but  with- 
drew this  later  and  was  burned.  The  queen  surrounded 
herself  with  Catholics,  made  Cardinal  Pole  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  seemed  to  be  on  the  threshold  of  a  career 
of  violent  work  in  the  extermination  of  Protestantism, 
when  she  died  in  1558. 

It    was    with    great    relief  that  England  saw  Elizabeth 
ascend  the  throne.      Elizabeth  was  a  Protestant  of  a  very 

conservative  type.  Parliament  immediately 
EUzaifet'h  "^^      passcd   an  act  restoring  the  supremacy   over 

the  Church  to  the  crown.     Later  (1563),  the 

237 


238  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Forty-two  Articles  were  revised  and  reduced  to  the 
Thirty-Nine  which  ever  since  have  constituted  the  Anglican 
creed.  The  Act  of  Supremacy  had  been  closely  followed 
by  an  Act  of  Uniformity,  according  to  which  dissent  from 
the  State  Church  was  not  allowed.  A  Court  of  High 
Commission  was  further  established  (1583)  to  take 
cognizance  of  the  infringement  of  these  and  other  reli- 
gious laws. 

The  English  Church,  however,  had  not  yet  come  to 
one  mind  with  respect  to  all  religious  forms,  and  the  at- 
tempt to  coerce  uniformity  was  bound  to  result 
Puntanhm.  i"  ^'''^  development  of  dissenting  forms.  These 
now  began  to  show  themselves  in  the  move- 
ment which  afterwards  grew  into  Puritanism.  Puritanism 
was  the  natural  unfolding  of  Hooper's  ideas.  It  began 
with  the  denial  of  the  necessity  of  certain  external  forms 
and  ceremonies,  such  as  the  wearing  of  vestments,  the 
making  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism,  kneeling  at 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  like.  The  Puritans  averred 
that  these  formalities  were  too  closely  allied  with  the 
papal  idea  of  the  priesthood  of  the  ministry,  to  be  allowed 
with  safety  in  a  church  that  had  broken  loose  from  papacy. 
With  Thomas  Cartwright  another  point  of  difference 
manifested  itself.  This  was  as  to  the  true  scriptural  form 
of  Church  government.  The  earlier  Anglican  leaders  held 
that  episcopacy  was  convenient  and  to  be  preferred,  but 
not  obligatory.  Cartwright  became  convinced  by  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  that  Presbyterianism  was  the  only 
form  of  polity  known  to  the  New  Testament.  As  against 
this  teaching,  the  Anglican  Bancroft  now  came  forward 
with  the  view  that  episcopacy  was  of  divine  origin,  while 
Hooper,  on  the  other  hand,  taught  within  the  Anglican 
Church  that  the  Church  was  endowed  with  the  right  and 
the  duty  of  legislating  regarding  its  own  form  of  polity 
and  might  change  it  from  time  to  lime. 

All  the  above,  however,  held  that  the  State  should  be 
associated  with  the  Church  in  the  exercise  of  authority,  at 
least  to  the   extent  of  taking   cognizance    of 
Independency,    and  puuishing  religious  offences,  such  as  blas- 
phemy,   heresy,    and    disobedience.     A   new 


CHURCHES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  239 

branch  of  Puritanism  now  appeared  and  disputed  this 
point.  This  was  Independency.  The  Independents  have 
sometimes  been  called  Brownists,  from  Robert  Browne 
(who  is  the  first  known  leader  to  teach  their  system),  and 
Separatists  because  they  advocated  separation  from  the 
state  Church,  a  step  which  the  other  Puritans  considered 
as  yet  in  the  light  of  schism.  John  Robinson  further  un- 
folded the  Independent  plan,  as  vesting  authority  only  in 
the  local  church  or  congregation.  Thus  Puritanism  was 
differentiated  into  three  varieties — that  which  accepted 
episcopacy  and  remained  in  undisputed  connection  with 
the  state  Church  ;  that  which  held  to  presbyterial  govern- 
ment and  still  remained  in  connection  with  the  Church, 
but  in  a  doubtful  relation  ;  and  that  which  broke  loose 
from  the  state  Church.  The  last  was  made  the  first  subject 
of  persecution.  It  was  obliged,  in  the  persons  of  its 
adherents  to  flee  from  the  country.  John  Robinson 
and  a  congregation  of  Independents  emigrated  to  Hol- 
land. 

The  controversy  between  Puritans  and  Episcopalians 
was  bequeathed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  her  successor, 
James  I.  (VI.  of  Scotland,  1603-1625).  James 
James  I.  was  the  SOU  of  Mary  of  Scots  and  Darnley,  and 

had  been  brought  up  as  a  Presbyterian  by  the 
Scottish  nobles.  He  prided  himself  on  his  knowledge  of 
theology,  and  was  intolerant  towards  those  who  differed 
from  him.  One  thousand  Non-conformist  (Puritan) 
ministers  presented  him  a  petition  (called  the  Millenary 
petition  from  the  number  who  signed  it)  on  his  way  to 
London  to  assume  the  government,  complaining  of  the 
"  burden  of  human  rites  and  ceremonies,"  and  asking  for 
a  purer  doctrine  and  a  more  godly  ministry.  He  set  it 
aside  unceremoniously,  and  began  his  reign  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  monarchy  in  the  State  requires  episcopacy  in  the 
Church.  "  No  bishop,  no  king,"  was  his  motto.  At  the 
Hampton  Conference,  held  the  year  following  his  acces- 
sion, he  plainly  showed  his  partiality  for  episcopacy,  and 
called  on  the  Puritans  "  to  conform  or  they  should  hear 
of  it." 

Yet  out  of  a  suggestion  made  at  this  conference  grew 


240  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  version  of  the  Bible  in  English,  which  has  been  known 
as   the    Authorized     or     King    James's    ver- 
Authorized        sion.     The    king  was  not  well  pleased  with 
the'^Bibie.  the    Geneva    Bible,    because  in  certain    mar- 

ginal notes  it  exhibited  some  disrespect  to  the 
royal  office.  The  new  version  was  finished  in  1611,  and 
was  based  on  Tyndale's  translation,  other  translations 
also  being  used  to  correct  and  improve  it.  Scholars 
of  the  best  type  were  charged  with  the  work,  and  the  re- 
sult proved  a  lasting  monument  to  counterbalance  many 
unfavorable  features  of  James's  reign. 

James  was  not  severe  towards  the  Puritans  only.  He 
was  quite  as  harsh  with  Catholics.  Several  of  these 
combined  in  a  plot  to  blow  up  the  house  of 
Calhoiks^^^'"'*  Parliament  with  gunpowder  while  the  king 
was  within.  It  was  discovered  in  time  and 
prevented.  Another  Catholic  rebellion  in  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Ulster,  was  put  down,  and  the  properties  of  the 
Catholics  were  confiscated  by  order  of  the  king,  and  be- 
stowed on  Presbyterian  colonists  from  Scotland.  Thus 
arose  the  Scotch- Irish  Church  of  the  county  of  Ulster,  or 
more  properly  of  the  North  of  Ireland. 

In  England,  the  king's  policy  began  to  take  practical 

shape    when    Whitgift,    archbishop    of    Canterbury,    and 

Bancroft,  of  London,  afterwards  successor  of 

Conflict  with      Whitgift  at  Canterbury,   undertook,    with  the 

Parliament.  ,  .       ,°  ,  -"  -r-.      •         •  t-. 

kmg  s  approval,  to  suppress  Puritanism.  But 
Puritanism  had  grown  and  found  expression  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  every  effort  to  put  it  down  met  with  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  House  of  Commons.  Bancroft  advised  the 
king  to  do  away  with  this  branch  of  the  government.  This 
was  a  result  which  James  could  not  reach  atone  step.  He 
therefore  simply  bent  his  course  in  the  direction  of  the  prel- 
ate's advice.  Finally,  in  1620,  he  deemed  the  time  ripe 
for  the  decisive  step,  taking  absolute  authority  into  his  own 
hands.  He  openly  denied  the  right  of  the  people's  repre- 
sentatives to  interfere  in  the  government,  and  dissolved 
Parliament.  The  storm  of  opposition  which  arose  in  con- 
sequence of  this  course  convinced  him  of  his  mistake. 
He  died  five  years  later,  leaving  the  problem  of  dispensing 
with  Parliament,  to  his  son,  Charles,  to  solve. 


CHURCHES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  24 1 

Charles  I.  (1625-1649)  was  better  qualified  than  his 
father  to  deal  with  difficulties.  He  was  a  more  dignified, 
skillful  and  courageous  man.  His  views  of 
Charles  I.  government  were  the  same  as  those  of  James, 
and  in  religion  he  was  bigoted  and  otherwise  obstinate 
and  full  of  dissimulation.  He  regarded  himself  bound 
neither  by  his  word  nor  by  his  oath.  When  he  took  the 
reins  of  government  he  found  an  empty  treasury,  a  lost 
credit,  and  a  Parliament  alert  to  the  danger  of  losing  its 
prerogatives  and  reluctant  to  vote  him  the  money  he 
needed.  After  dissolving  three  Parliaments  between 
1625  and  1629,  he  resolved  to  govern  without  that  body 
and  for  eleven  years  summoned  none  to  meet. 

In  his  arbitrary  and  suicidal  policy  the  king  found  two 
supporters, — the  earl  of  Strafford  and  William  Laud, 
Strafford  and  bishop  of  London  until  [633,  and  archbishop 
Laud.  The  of  Canterbury  afterwards.  By  advice  of  Laud 
Book  of  Sports.  (^j^^^j.jg^    revived    the  Book  of  Sports.      This 

was  first  put  forth  by  James  L  in  1618  as  a  strategic 
means  against  the  Puritans  in  the  matter  of  Sabbath  ob- 
servance. James  alleged  that  the  strictness  of  the  Puri- 
tans drove  many  into  popery.  He  therefore  devised  that 
after  divine  service  on  Sundays  the  people  should  be  rec- 
ommended such  recreations  as  dancing,  leaping,  archery, 
the  setting  up  of  May-poles  and  other  similar  amuse- 
ments. The  Book  of  Sports  was  to  be  read  in  the 
churches.  Such  was  the  opposition  to  it,  however,  at  the 
time,  that  James  suspended  its  use.  This  book  now 
Charles  commanded  all  ministers  to  read  in  church. 
Many  of  the  Puritans  abandoned  the  morning  service  * 
and  held  informal  services  in  the  afternoon  delivering 
"  lectures."  Archbishop  Laud  prohibited  these  lectures 
and  caused  an  intense  feeling  of  hostility  to  his  views 
thereby. 

The  attempt  of  the  king  to  rule  without  Parliament  was 
effectually  estopped  by  the  law  requiring  that  all  levies 
of  money  should  be    ordered  by  Parliament.     The   king 

*  Others  read  the  book  but  added  at  the  end, "  This  is  the  word 
of  a  man  ;"'  and  then  reading  the  Fourth  Commandment  remarked, 
"  This  is  the  command  of  God." 


242  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

sought  by  every  device  conceivable  to  evade  this  law  and 
finally  came  in  conflict  with  Hampden  and  Oliver  Crom- 
r,    «.      ...       well  in  an  effort  on  the  part  of  Hampden  to 

Conflict  with  .  ,  .,,  1  •  'T^i   •  -^1       i.1 

Hampden  and  resist  the  illegal  taxation.  1  his,  with  the 
Cromwell.  ^^^  ^jj.j^  Scotland  caused  by  the  resistance  of 
the  Scotch  to  the  episcopal  system  imposed  on  the  coun- 
try at  the  instigation  of  Laud,  forced  Charles  to  call  the 
"Short"  Parliament,  so  called  because  it  was  dissolved 
by  the  king  when  he  found  that  it  would  not  vote  the 
subsidies  he  asked  for,  except  on  condition  that  the  king 
redress  the  grievances  of  the  people. 

The  "  Short  "  Parliament  was  followed  by  the  "  Long  " 
one.  This  body  passed  an  enactment,  which  the  king 
LongPariiament.^^'as  compelled  to  sign  foi"  fear  of  something 
Execution  of  worsc,  that  it  should  not  be  dissolved  except 
Strafford  and  ^^  j^^  ^^^,^  conscnt.  It  then  proceeded  to 
impeach  Strafford  and  Laud,  and  finding  them 
guilty  of  high  treason  condemned  and  executed  them. 
Then  the  Court  of  High  Commission  and  the  Star  Cham- 
ber, an  ancient  court  of  justice  to  which  arbitrary  powers 
had  been  granted  for  the  purpose  of  expediting  clear 
cases,  found  now  abusing  its  powers  in  obedience  to  Laud 
and  the  king,  were  both  abolished.  The  relations  of  the 
king  and  Parliament  grew  daily  in  tension. 

Charles  consented  to  the  measures  taken  by  Parliament, 
but  only  in  order  to  mature  some  plan  for  a  final  onslaught 
on  the  popular  leaders.  When  he  resorted 
Civil  War.  to  this  Step  the  popular  feeling  rose  so  high 
that  he  was  compelled  to  fly  to  York,  The 
Civil  War  then  followed.  In  this  memorable  struggle  at 
first  the  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads  seemed  equally 
balanced  ;  but  when  Cromwell  assumed  the  command  of 
the  Puritans,  affairs  took  a  sharp  turn.  In  the  battles 
of  Marston  Moor  (1644)  and  Naseby  (1645),  the  Parlia- 
mentary party  defeated  the  Royalists  and  the  king  saved 
himself  only  by  flying  for  refuge  to  the  Scots. 

A  division   now  arose  among   the  victorious    Puritans. 

Some  would  have  been  satisfied  to  reinstate  Charles  with 

new  limitations  to  his  power  and  safeguards 

Exe^it^ionof      ^g^i^^t  his  Usurping  authority.     These   were 

•  mostly    Presbyterians.       The    Independents 


CHURCHES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND. 


243 


under  Cromwell  wished  a  more  radical  change.  The  Royal- 
ist party  soon  determined  which  of  these  sides  should 
prevail.  By  their  violent  outbreaks  they  convinced  the 
moderate  Puritans  that  the  only  safe  course  lay  in  radical 
measures.  I'he  king  was  tried  by  Parliament,  found 
guilty  of  high  treason  and  executed  in  1649. 

In  Scotland  the  attempts  at  church  reform  preceding 
1557  may  be  characterized  as  a  series  of  sporadic  out- 
breaks of  opposition  against  the  Roman  sys- 
Reformsin  tcm  by  individuals.  Patrick  Hamilton  began 
preaching  reform  in  1528  and  was  seized  and 
burned.  George  Wishart  appeared  fifteen  years  later 
and  met  with  a  better  reception  on  the  part  of  the  nobles, 
but  he  also  was  seized  by  order  of  Archbishop  Beaton 
and  burned.  Beaton,  however,  paid  the  penalty  for  this 
and  other  persecutions  by  his  life.  He  was  assassinated 
in  his  own  castle  in  1546.  John  Knox,  was  seized  and 
imprisoned  for  alleged  complicity  in  this  crime.  But 
being  set  free  in  1549,  he  fled  to  Geneva  to  escape  the 
persecutions  of  the  "  Bloody  "  Mary. 

Meantime  the  Reformed  views  gained  ground  in  the 
realm.  At  the  death  of  James  V.  in  1542  the  govern- 
ment passed  into  the  hands  of  his  wife  Mary 
Organization  of  Guisc  as  regent  during  the  minority  of 
gation,  Tnl the  the  infant  Mary,  afterwards  Queen  of  Scots. 
Covenant.  ^g  j-j^g  j-ggent  was  a  strong  Catholic  it  came 
to  pass  that  the  struggle  for  reform  was  reduced  in  Scot- 
land into  a  conflict  for  the  ascendancy  between  the 
crown  and  clergy  on  the  one  side,  and  the  nobles  and 
people  on  the  other.  In  1557  the  leading  nobles  and 
people  organized  themselves  under  the  name  of  The 
Congregation  of  Christ  and  made  a  covenant  that  they 
would  aid  each  other  in  the  exercise  of  their  religious  rights. 
The  marriage  of  the  young  queen  with  Francis  of  France 
threatened  not  only  to  make  Scotland  a  part  of  France 
but  eventually  to  draw  England  into  the  same  relation. 
To  defend  the  threatened  independence  of  England  there- 
fore, more  than  for  any  other  reason.  Queen  Elizabeth  in- 
terfered with  an  English  army,  and  compelled  the  French 
to  withdraw  and  leave  the  government  in  the  hands  of 


244  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  Council  of  Lords  in  1560.  The  regent  died  the  same 
year,  and  the  Scottish  Parliament  proclaimed  the  Re- 
formed faith  to  be  the  religion  of  Scotland. 

John  Knox  (1505-1572)  at  once  became  theleaderand 
good  genius  of  the  Scottish  church.  The  form  of  govern- 
ment adopted  for  the  Church  was  Presby- 
john  Knox.  tcrian,  with  which  Knox  had  become  familiar 
in  Geneva.  The  first  General  Assembly  of 
Scotland  met  in  1560.  A  Confession  of  Faiih  drawn  up 
by  Knox  was  adopted  by  Parliament  and  the  organiza- 
tion seemed  complete.  To  satisfy  the  law  which  re- 
quired that  only  bishops  should  receive  certain  revenues, 
certain  individuals  were  designated  "  bishops  "  without 
prelatic  authority,  being  in  fact  in  some  instances  nothing 
more  than  laymen.  These  were  later  called  "  Tulchan  " 
bishops.* 

When  Mary  came  to  Scotland  to  reign  in  her  own  per- 
son she  intended  to  restore  Roman  Catholicism.  But  in 
Knox  she  found  not  only  an  implacable  enemy 
Mary  Queen      fo  her  plans,  but  also  a  private  censor  of  her 

of  Scots  .  .  .  . 

views,  who  did  not  mince  his  words.  She  was 
allowed  to  celebrate  mass  in  her  own  chapel,  but  was 
plainly  told  that  she  was  practicing  idolatry.  She  was 
obliged  to  center  her  hopes  of  giving  back  Scotland  to 
Catholicism  on  the  triumph  of  the  French  over  Elizabeth. 
But  even  these  hopes  she  was  led  to  abandon  when  peace 
was  concluded  between  England  and  France. 

The  marriage  of  Mary  witli  Darnley,  the  birth  of  James 
(afterwards  James  I.  of  England),  the  alienation  from 
Darnley,  his  murder,  the  marriage  with  Bothwell  who 
planned  Darnley's  murder,  all  tended  to  strengthen  her 
enemies,  and  culminated  in  the  cutting  short  of  her  reign 
in  1567,  only  seven  years  from  her  accession.  She  abdi- 
cated in  favor  of  her  son  at  that  date,  appointing  her- half- 
brother    Murray,   a    Protestant,    as    regent.     Attempting 

*  The  termTulchan  was  applied  to  them  from  the  fiction  which  they 
represented,  it  being  the  name  of  the  etfigy  of  a  calf  used  in  lead- 
ing cows  to  the  milking  shed.  John  Knox,  it  may  be  noted,  was  not 
in  favor  of  this  legal  fiction,  but  advocated  the  policy  of  diverting 
funds  to  purposes  of  education, 


CHURCHES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND. 


245 


later  to  regain  power,  she  was  defeated,  and  she  precip- 
itately fled  to  England  where  her  treacherous  conduct  was 
ended  in  1587,  leading  her  to  execution, 

John  Knox  died  in  1572.     But  his  mantle  fell  on  an  able 
successor  in  the  person  of  Andrew  Melville  (1545-1622). 

If  Knox  laid  the  foundations  of  Scotch  Pres- 
Andrew  Mel-     byteriauism,  jNIelville  built  the  superstructure. 

With  his  intense  zeal  and  fearless  spirituality 
he  combined  great  learning.  He  fought  vigorously  the 
idea  of  the  control  of  the  Church  by  the  State.  Step  by 
step  he  gained  on  the  opposition  until  in  1592  a  Second 
Book  of  Discipline  was  adopted  by  Parliament  and  As- 
sembly which  for  its  thoroughgoing  Presbyterianism  has 
been  called  the  "  Charter  of  the  Kirk."  It  abolished  all 
remnants  of  episcopacy  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
right  of  lay  patronage,  gave  congregations  an  exclusive 
control  in  the  matter  of  selecting  their  ministers. 

When    King   James  became    an    avowed   advocate   of 
Episcopalianism,  he  resolved  that  he  would  impose  that 

system  on  Scotland  also.  As  a  step  in  this 
Efforts  to         direction  he  induced  the  General  Assembly  of 

tpiscopahze  ,  .  .  .     ■' 

the  Church  of  iDio  to  appoint  permanent  moderators  of  pres- 
Scotiand.  bytcries.     This    was     followed,     eight     years 

later,  by  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth  including  episcopal 
confirmation,  kneeling  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  observance 
of  holidays,  private  baptism  and  private  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.  The  churches  of  Glasgow  and  St. 
Andrews  were  made  archbishoprics,  eleven  others  were 
raised  to  bishoprics,  and  all  the  Scottish  bishops  were  re- 
quired to  be  consecrated  by  bishops  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

At  this  stage  of  its  progress  James  at  his  death  left  the 
work  of  turning  Scotland  into  episcopacy.     Charles  at- 
tempted to  carry  it  further.     With  archbishop 
Presbyterianism  Laud  to  uvgc  him  ou,  he  prcsscd  the  Scotch  to 

Restored.  ...  ^ 

the  limit  of  their  endurance.  A  wave  of  reac- 
tion came  on.  In  1637  the  memorable  "stool-throwing" 
at  St.  Giles  cathedral  gave  the  signal  of  the  uprising 
against  the  service-book  and  the  other  emblems  of  Angli- 
canism in   Scotland.     The   Covenant   was  renewed  in  a 


246  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

solemn  and  impressive  manner.  The  General  Assembly 
of  1638  restored  Presbyterianism.  Then  followed  the  war 
with  Charles  which  soon  became  not  a  war  between 
Charles  and  England  on  one  side  with  Scotland  on  the 
other,  but  a  war  between  Charles  and  the  Royalists  on  one 
side  and  the  Puritans  of  England  combined  with  the  Pres- 
byterians of  Scotland  on  the  other. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY. 

The  Augsburg  Confession  prepared  by  Melanchthon  for 

the   Diet  of  Augsburg,  wliich  met  at  Augsburg  in  1530, 

with  the  full  approval  of  Luther,  contains  the 

Augsburg  Con-    earliest  form  of  expression  given  to  the  the- 

fession  and  ,  /-it.  o^  i       i  ■ 

Loci  Communes,  ology  of  the  Frotestants.  Side  by  side  with 
this  document  stood  Melanchthon'sZ^r/ C(?;«- 
munes.  Both  of  these  works  were  for  some  time  accepted 
as  satisfactory  expositions  of  Protestant  doctrine.  Luther's 
own  compositions,  the  Smalcald  Articles  and  the  Cate- 
chisms, did  not  differ  much  in  substance  from  these. 

But   the   fundamental   doctrine  of  Luther — justification 
by  faith   alone — could  be  easily  pressed  to  yield  extreme 

results.  Starting  from  the  position  that  the 
Antinomilnism.  ^^w  is  abolished  by  the  coming  of  the  gospel, 

John  Agricola,  of  Eisleben,  a  professor  at 
Wittenberg,  taught  that  the  moral  law  is  not  obligatory 
under  the  gospel  dispensation,  a  view  which  has  been  de- 
veloped into  bald  Antinomianism  and  was  destined  to 
prove  very  troublesome  to  the  Reformers. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  line  arose  Mysticism,  taught  by 
Osiander,   and    independently    by    Caspar    Schwenkfeld. 

Osiander  was  repelled  by  the  mere  limitation 
Mysticism         Qf  justification  to  the  external  relations  of  the 

Schwenkfeld        •.      , . 

and  Osiander.  believcr,  and  held  that  in  some  way  Christ 
enters  into  the  believer's  being  through  faith 
and  makes  him  just  within,  as  well  as  just  at  the  bar  of 
God.  Schwenkfeld  taught  the  same  doctrine,  but  com- 
bined with  it  a  peculiar  view  of  the  incarnation.  He 
asserted  that  the  human  nature  of  Christ  was  different 
from  the  humanity  of  other  men,  being  a  direct  offspring 

247 


248  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  God  as  well  as  of  the  Virgin.  It  is  exalted  after  the 
completion  of  Christ's  work  into  perfect  participation  in 
the  divine  nature,  and  in  this  state  becomes  the  source  of 
righteousness  to  the  believer  by  being  infused  into  his 
nature. 

Luther  and  Melanchthon  remained  closely  associated 
with  one  another  as  long  as  they  were  both  living.  But 
Melanchthon  was  gradually  moved  from  the 
Lutherans  and  positions  first  held,  especially  on  the  necessity 
ians!'"'^  '^°"  of  speciiic  forms  in  worship,  the  nature  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  the  cooperation  of  the 
human  with  the  divine  will  in  regeneration.  With  ref- 
erence to  each  of  these  points  he  was  followed  by  a  num- 
ber of  Lutherans,  and  thus  originated  within  Germany  a 
series  of  theological  controversies  in  which  the  special 
followers  of  Melanchthon  were  called  Philippists  or 
Melanchthonians. 

The  first  of  these  controversies  was  perhaps  that  re- 
garding the  legality,  or  permissibility,  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic forms.  The  more  rigid  Lutherans 
ComrovTrsy.''  lookcd  upou  thesc  as  sinful  in  themselves, 
whereas  the  disciples  of  Melanchthon  thought 
them  indifferent  in  themselves,  but  liable  to  become 
idolatrous  if  performed  in  the  spirit  of  idolatry.  This 
position  was  termed  Adiaphorism  *  and  the  controversy, 
the  Adiaphoristic  controversy.  Consistently  with  their 
view  of  the  practices  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the  Philip- 
pists also  held  that  it  was  desirable  to  unite  Protestantism 
with  Catholicism,  and,  by  force  of  the  same  reasons  hold- 
ing with  greater  force,  the  Lutheran  and  the  Calvinistic 
or  Reformed  Churches.  The  strict  Lutherans  were  op- 
posed to  this  union. 

The    Synergistic    controversy    concerned  the   work    of 

grace  in  the  heart.  The  Synergists,  following  Melanchthon, 

held  that  there  was  a  remnant  of  ability  in  the 

Synergistic        ginful  soul  that  must  be  used  in  cooperation 

Controversy.        "^  ,  ,       ,         ^     .    •  i 

with   the  power  of  the  Spirit  to  produce  re- 
generation.    The  stricter  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 

*  aSidcbopa,  thin£s  indifferent. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PROTESTANT  THEOLOGY. 


249 


fession,  under  the  leadership  of  Amsdorf,  opposed  this 
view  and  maintained  Augustinianism  in  its  purity.  An 
opposite  extreme  was,  however,  evolved  as  a  consequence 
of  the  discussion  by  Flacius.  According  to  this  theo- 
logian, original  sin  was  not  an  accident,  but  an  inherent 
substance.  By  promulgating  this  teaching  Flacius  hoped 
to  silence  those  who  asserted  that  there  was  a  remnant  of 
ability  in  the  soul  to  cooperate  with  the  divine  grace.  But 
his  partisans  repudiated  the  extravagant  doctriiie,  and  he 
was  expelled  and  died  in  extreme  poverty. 

By  far  the  most  important  development  within  Lutheran- 
ism  was  induced  by  Melanchthon's  slight  change  of  base  on 
the  Lord's  Supper  and  was  called  Crypto-Cal- 
P;j[P'°-Ca'^°-  vinism.  The  Philippists  favored  Calvin's 
theory  of  the  real  spiritual  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  sacrament  as  against  the  stricter  Lutheran  theory 
of  consubstantiation.  The  controversy  grew  so  violent 
that  the  State  was  drawn  into  it,  taking  sides  at  first  with 
the  Lutheran  view.  In  1574  it  was  made  an  offense,  pun- 
ishable by  the  civil  law,  to  hold  and  teach  the  Calvinistic 
theory.  When  Christian  L  assumed  the  government  of 
the  Palatinate,  in  1586,  there  was  a  temporary  reversal  of 
the  policy  of  the  preceding  administration,  lasting  till 
1591.  For  the  next  ten  years  opposition  to  Calvinism 
was  very  violent.  A  new  wave  favoring  it  swept  over  the 
land  and  brought  the  states  of  Hesse-Cassel,  Lippe  and 
Brandenburg  under  its  sway.  The  Lutheran  theologians 
waged  a  bitter  warfare  against  it,  but  the  question  re- 
mained for  the  time  an  unsettled  one. 

Meanwhile,  the  controversies  between  Philippists  and 
Lutherans  had  issued  in  the  promulgation  of  a  new  creed, 
intended  to  unite  the  contending  parties. 
CoMord.  From   this  design  of  it,  the  creed  was  called 

the  Foim  of  Concord  {Formi/la  Coticordice). 
It  was  composed  by  several  prominent  theologians  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  1577,  and  sanctioned  and  published 
by  the  elector  of  Saxony  in  1580.  It  was  of  the  nature 
of  a  compromise,  and  while  it  found  many  admirers  who 
accepted  it,  it  was  rejected  as  too  lenient  by  some,  and  as 
too  rigid  by  others. 


2  50  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  Reformed    theolog}'^,    as    distinguished   from   the 

Lutheran,  may   be   said  to  have   had  two  origins.     The 

views    of    Zwingli    found   expression    in    the 

Helvetic  Con-    jTifsj;     ^nd     Second     Helvetic     Confessions 

tcssions, 

(1536  and  1566  respectively).  Martin  Bucer, 
Capito,  and  Henry  Bullinger  did  what  Zwingli  him- 
self was  not  allowed,  by  his  premature  death,  to  accom- 
plish. They  presented  in  systematic  form  the  beliefs 
that  had  grown,  from  a  study  of  the  Bible,  in  the  region 
of  the  Swiss  Reformer's  activity.  When  Calvin  put  forth 
his  system  in  his  I?istitiites,  a  theology  of  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent type  appeared.  Yet  its  affinity  to  the  Swiss  system 
was  so  great  and  the  difference  was  so  slight  that  an 
ultimate  fusion  was  not  out  of  the  question. 

Calvinism    distinctively  found  expression  in  the  Gal- 
ilean Confession,  drawn  up  by  an  assembly  of  Reformed 

preachers  in  1559,  in  France,  the  Belgic 
Ssio.r*^°"     Confession,  composed    by  Guido  de    Bres  in 

1561,  w'ith  the  aid  of  other  divines,  and  in  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  written  by  request  of  the  elector 
Frederick  HI.  of  Saxony,  by  Caspar  Olevianus  and  Zacha- 
rias  Ursinus,  in  1563.  The  countries  represented  by  these 
documents  show  a  widespread  acceptance  of  the  Calvinistic 
system.  The  Confession  of  Faith  adopted  by  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  drawn  up  by  John  Knox,  was  not  only  of  the 
same  general  type,  but  incorporated  the  same  system 
throughout. 

The  Church  of    Holland  gave   its   adherence    to  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Belgic  Confession  revised 

by  Francis  Junius,  a  professor  at  Leyden. 
i^nfsm^  ^'■"""'  The   Synods    of  Antwerp   (1566),  of  Emden 

(1571),  and  of  Dort  (1574)  formally  adopted 
this  creed.  I3ut  the  views  it  expressed  vi^ere  not 
cordially  received  by  many  of  the  ministers  of  the 
Church.  A  discussion  was  started  which  brought  to  the 
front  Arminius  and  the  Arminian  system.  James  Armin- 
ius  (1560-1609)  began  his  labors  as  a  pastor  in  Amster- 
dam. At  the  death  of  Francis  Junius  he  was  appointed 
to  the  professorship  of  theology  at  Leyden.  Here  he 
found  Francis  Gomarus,  one  of  his  colleagues,  involved 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PROTESTANT  THEOLOGY.       25I 

in  a  controversy  with  certain  pastors  at  Delft  on  the 
question  of  the  order  of  the  divine  decrees.  Gomarus 
was  a  supralapsarian  and  was  opposed  by  the  pastors, 
who  taught  infralapsarianism.  Arminius  was  invited  to 
defend  his  colleague's  views,  but  found  on  studying  the 
subject  that  he  must  take  more  radical  ground  even  than 
the  infralapsarians,  and  totally  reject  unconditional  elec- 
tion. 

Throughout  the  six  years  of  his  professorship  at 
Leyden,  Arminius  developed  his  views  into  a  system. 
His  successor  in  that  position — Simon  Epis- 
The^Remon-  copius — wcut  cvcn  bcyoud  him  in  his  opposi- 
tion to  Calvinism,  The  controversy  was 
complicated  by  the  entrance  into  it  of  politics.  Prince 
Maurice  advocated  Calvinism  along  with  his  principles 
of  a  rigid  civil  rule.  The  Arminians,  led  by  Hugo 
Grotius,  the  great  jurist,  and  Olden  Barneveld,  opposed 
a  more  liberal  system  of  political  government  to 
Maurice's  strictness.  Maurice  made  it  a  requisite  condi- 
tion for  continuance  in  the  ministry  that  the  ministers 
should  accept  the  national  Confession.  The  Arminians 
put  forth  a  Remonstrance,  and  thenceforth  were  called 
also  Remonstrants. 

The  Remonstrance  embodied  the  Arminian  system  in 
five  articles  :  (i)  Conditional  election  ;  (2)  Unlimited 
Atonement ;  (3)  Partial  Depravity  ;  (4)  Resistible  Grace  ; 
(5)  Possibility  of  a  lapse  from  Grace.  Against  these  five 
articles  were  set  over  the  Five  Points  of  Calvinism, 
embodying  in  each  case  the  exactly  opposite  view.  Thus 
the  controversy  was  carried  on  for  eight  years  (1610- 
1618).  All  efforts  to  harmonize  the  contending  sides 
proved  fruitless. 

In  1618  the  States-General  of  the  Dutch  Republic 
called  together  the  great  Synod  of  Dort.  This  was 
meant  to  be  a  general  council  of  all  the  Cal- 
SynodofDort.  vinistic  churchcs  to  sit  in  judgment  on 
Arminianism.  In  answer  to  invitations,  dele- 
gates appeared  from  Switzerland,  Germany  and  Great 
Britain.  Delegates  were  also  appointed  by  the  Reformed 
Church    of   France,  but    forbidden    by   Louis   XIII.  to 


2^2  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

attend.  The  great  majority  of  the  representatives  were 
Calvinists.  The  Arminians  were  summoned  before  the 
Council  and  given  a  hearing.  Their  views  were  exam- 
ined and  condemned,  and  they  were  themselves  deposed 
and  excluded  from  communion,  a  number  of  them  being 
even  banished  the  country.  The  Synod  confirmed  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Belgic  Confession,  and 
framed  its  own  canons  enunciating  the  so-called  Five 
Points  of  Calvinism.  Arminianism  was  for  a  time  put 
into  the  background;  but  somewhat  later  it  reappeared, 
was  less  severely  treated  and  grew  in  many  places,  adopt- 
ing, however,  some  features  that  softened  it  materi- 
alfy. 

The  theology  of  the  English  Church  took  a  definite  form 
in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  resulting  from  the  revision   of 

the  Forty-two  in  157 1.  The  growth  of  Puri- 
Westminster  tauisni  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
^'  century  and  the  ascendancy  of  the  Parliamen- 
tary party  necessitated  some  change  at  least  in  the  form  of 
the  government  of  the  Church.  To  determine  the  nature 
and  extent  of  this  change  the  Long  Parliament  issued  in 
1643  an  ordinance  "for  the  calling  of  an  Assembly  of 
learned  and  godly  divines  and  others  to  be  consulted 
with  by  Parliament,  for  the  settling  of  the  Government 
and  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  for  vindicat- 
ing and  clearing  of  the  doctrine  of  the  said  Church 
from  false  aspersions  and  interpretations." 

The  Assembly  thus  summoned  met  the  same 
The  Solemn  year  in  the  Abbey  Church  of  Westminster  and 
Covfnant"'^       began  on  the  work  of  revising  the  Thirty-nine 

Articles  in  the  interests  of  clearness  and 
simplicity.  It  had  spent  ten  weeks  in  the  consideration 
of  the  first  fifteen  articles  when  Parliament  entered 
into  a  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  with  Scotland, 
including  among  other  things  an  agreement  that  the 
ecclesiastical  system  in  both  countries  should  be  the 
same,  and,  though  its  precise  nature  was  not  defined  in 
the  Covenant,  it  was  stipulated  that  "  the  Word  of  God 
and  the  example  of  the  best  Reformed  churches  "  should 
furnish  the  models.     A  new  order  was  issued  by  Parlia- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PROTESTANT  THEOLOGY.       253 

ineiit  directing  the  Assembly  to  "  confer  among  them- 
selves, of  such  a  discipline  and  government  as  may  be 
best  agreeable  to  God's  Holy  Word,  and  most  apt  to 
procure  and  preserve  the  peace  of  the  Church  at  home, 
and  nearer  agreement  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and 
the  Reformed  churches  abroad." 

Thus    the    Assembly    left   the   work   of   revising    the 
Thirty-nine  Articles    and  turned    to  that  of  providing  a 

new  constitution  for  the  Church  of  England. 
Work  of  the  The  first  part  of  the  new  work  proved  com- 
Alsembry!"'      paratively    easy.    The   Directory   of    Worship 

was  the  earliest  reported  from  the  committee 
to  which  it  had  been  referred,  and  was  disposed  of 
quickly  and  without  much  discussion.  The  next  subject 
was  that  of  a  form  of  government.  This  was  not  as  easily 
managed.  Four  distinct  parties  existed  in  the  Church,  viz, 
—the  Episcopalians,  the  Presbyterians,  the  Independents, 
and  the  Erastians.  Of  these  the  last  three  were  repre- 
sented in  the  Assembly,  the  Presbyterians  being  the  most 
numerous,  and  ably  supported  by  the  Scottish  delegates. 
The  Independents,  though  few,  were  able  and  learned, 
and  exceedingly  tenacious.  They  were  moreover  assured 
of  strong  backing  outside  of  Parliament.  The  Erastians 
— so-called  from  Erastus,  a  Heidelberg  theologian  whose 
views  they  had  adopted — held  that  the  Church  should 
have  no  government  of  its  own.  The  ministry  should  be 
limited  to  the  functions  of  preaching  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  ordinances.  Discipline  both  civil  and 
religious  should  be  administered  by  the  State.  This 
theory  was  pleasing  to  many  statesmen  in  Parliament. 
In  such  a  divided  state  the  Assembly  consumed  much 
time  in  the  debate  on  the  details  of  the  question  before  it, 
recurring  over  and  over  again  to  the  same  arguments. 
At  the  end  of  nearly  four  years  the  debate  was  closed 
and  the  form  of  government  adopted.  The  Assembly 
then  addressed  itself  to  the  task  of  formulating  the 
doctrinal  standards.  The  Confession  of  Faith  and  the 
Catechisms  were  agreed  to  and  the  work  was  submitted 
to  Parliament  for  ratification.  The  Assembly  was  then 
resolved   into  a  court  for  the  trial    and    examination  of 


254  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ministers,  and  thus  continued  till  Cromwell  dissolved  the 
Long  Parliament,  April  20,  1653. 

Laelius  Socinus  (1525-1562),  of   Siena,  was   one  of  the 
earliest  in  the  Reformation  period  to  push  his  intellectual 

objections  to  the  belief  in  the  divinity  of 
Socinianism.      Jesus  Christ.      He  did  not  conceal  his  views, 

but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  did  not  teach 
them  with  the  design  of  organizing  an  anti-Trinitarian 
sect.  His  nephew  Faustus  (1539-1604),  inheriting  the 
papers  of  his  uncle,  formulated  these  views  more  fully, 
and,  taking  them  into  Poland,  where  there  were  already  a 
number  of  Unitarians  existing  as  scattered  individuals, 
he  organized  a  Unitarian  community.  The  beliefs  of  the 
Socini  were  incorporated  into  the  Racovian  Catechism, 
and  their  system  is  known  as  Socinianism.  They  held 
to  the  Bible  as  absolute  authority,  but  denied  that  it 
taught  the  preexistence  or  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  or 
the  vicarious  atonement.  Jesus,  according  to  them,  is  a 
revealer  of  truth  primarily. 

Besides  leading  into  the  theological  systems  already 
noticed,  the  Reformation  proved  to  be  the  occasion  for 

the  development  of  certain  anti-ecclesiastical 
TheAnabaptists.|.gntje,-icies,    which    had     been     smouldering 

during  the  Middle  Ages,  The  chief  channel 
through  which  these  now  found  vent  were  the  views  and 
practices  of  the  Anabaptists.  The  Anabaptists,  however, 
cannot  be  regarded  as  a  uniform  or  compact  body  M'ith  a 
definite  system  of  beliefs.  They  agreed  in  rejecting  the 
validity  of  infant  baptism,  and  in  requiring  the  rebaptism 
of  all  who  may  have  been  baptized  as  infants.  But,  this 
doctrine  apart,  they  differed  from  one  another  in  other 
essential  matters  ;  some  were  very  extravagant  m  their 
claims,  and  immoral  as  well  as  offensive  in  their  prac- 
tices. For  these  they  were  naturally  held  in  detestation 
and  punished.  Others  were  quite  moderate  and  script- 
ural in  both  belief  and  practice.  One  of  these  latter — 
Menno  Simonis — obtained  a  powerful  hold  on  the 
Anabaptists  as  a  body,  and  softened  the  harshness  of 
their  views,  and  unified  them  under  evangelical  forms  of 
expression  and  worship.  A  large  section  of  the  body  has 
borne  his  name  as  a  denomination. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND  THE  CATHOLIC 
CHURCH. 

The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  was  followed  by  rapid  and 
radical  changes   in   the   political  complexion  of   Europe. 

States  that  had  held  almost  unlimited  power 
ablTut^r^thT^^^*^^^"^^^'^  ^"*^  disappeared,  while  others 
Treaty  of  West-  that  had  been  content  to  occupy  a  secondary 
P^^'^'  place  rose  into  the  highest  rank  and  acquired 

great  prestige  and  influence.  The  Holy  Roman  empire 
was,  by  the  very  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia, 
shorn  of  its  importance,  and  began  to  recede  into  the 
background,  until,  towards  the  end  of  the  period  under 
consideration,  it  was  nothing  more  than  a  mere  name, 
and,  only  a  few  years  after  the  close  of  it,  became  extinct 
even  as  a  name,  by  the  abdication  of  Francis  II.  (1806). 
Poland,  a  powerful  state,  and  prominent  at  the  time  of 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  holding  the  electorate  of 
Brandenburg  as  a  fief,  was,  before  the  French  Revolution, 
prostrated  and  dismembered,  and  disappeared  from  the 
map  of  Europe.  Sweden,  which  under  Gustavus  Adolphus 
had  taken  the  part  of  a  first-rate  nation,  fell  into  a 
subordinate  place  again  soon  afterwards.  Spain  also 
steadily  declined  in  consequence  of  the  repressive  and 
tyrannical  measures  of  Philip  II.  Before  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  it  was  involved  in  wars  regarding  the 
succession  which  further  weakened  and  crippled  it. 

On    the  other   hand,  the   Electorate   of    Brandenburg, 
breaking    loose    from    Poland    under    Frederick  William 

(1640-1688),  and  annexing  the  duchy  of 
Decline  of  the  Prussia  and  part  of  Pomerania,  took  a  large 
Erapirer""^"      Stride  forward.      The  successor  of    f>ederick 

William,  Frederick  I.   (1688-1 713),  assumed 

255 


256  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  title  of  king  in  1701.      Then  came  Frederick  William 

I.  (1713-1740),  whose  rule  was  characterized  by  strict 
discipline,  and  Frederick  II.  the  Great  (i 740-1 786),  who 
by  his  military  genius  pushed  Prussia  still  further  to  the 
front.  The  Dutch  Republic  entered  into  a  career  of 
peaceful  prosperity  under  the  guarantees  of  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia.  Even  the  great  Louis  XIV.  was  unable  to 
prevail  against  it.  But  the  energies  of  the  Netherlands 
were  devoted  rather  to  commerce  than  to  political  enter- 
prise, and  the  republic  never  played  a  cardinal  part  in 
Europe. 

In  France,  Italy,  and  England,  the  changes  were   more 
of  an  internal  character,  not  affecting  the  external  prestige 
of  these  nations  directly.     Louis  XIV.,  in  a 
France.  reign  of   scvcnty-two   years,   was  enabled  to 

concentrate  the  whole  power  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  monarch,  so  that  he  could 
rightly  say,  "  I  am  the  State  "  {Letat  c'cst  jnoi).  The 
danger  of  this  centralization  was,  however,  made  manifest 
when  his  grandson,  Louis  XV.,  began  to  use  the  power  of 
the  State  for  his  own  corrupt  and  selfish  ends.  Thus  the 
way  was  paved  for  the  great  upheaval  which  carried 
Louis  XVI.,  the  grandson  and  successor  of  Louis  XV.,  to 
the  block. 

In  England  the  Commonwealth  established  by  Cromwell 
lasted  until  1660.  Charles  II.  (1660-1685),  who  was  en- 
trusted with  the  throne,  for  which  his  father 
S"the'stu^ru'  ^^"^^  h^^w  adjudged  unfit,  developed  all  the 
vices  of  the  Stuarts.  His  inclination  towards 
Roman  Catholicism  was  but  thinly  veiled,  and  when,  on 
his  deathbed,  he  actually  professed  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  and  left  his  throne  to  an  avowed  Romanist,  James 

II.  (1685-1688),  the  end  of  the  Stuart  dynasty  in  Great 
Britain  was  inevitable.  In  the  Revolution  of  1688,  James 
was  supplanted  by  William  and  Mary,  who  were  in  turn 
followed  by  Anne,  and  later  by  the  House  of  Hanover. 

In  the  midst  of  these  changes  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  continued  to  move  in  the  channel  into  which  it 

had  settled  with  the  Council  of  Trent.  Its 
QuestionI""     ^^cn  tenor  was  interrupted  by  the  outbreak  of 

new  discussion  over  some  old  questions.     ThQ 


THE  POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  257 

first  of  these  ripples  on  its  surface  was  the  dispute  called 
the  Galilean  Question.  Louis  XIV.,  though  desirous  of 
appearing  in  the  role  of  a  good  Catholic,  claimed  the 
right  of  exacting  from  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  in  France 
the  vassal's  oath,  and  of  controlling  vacant  bishoprics, 
especially  the  right  of  appropriating  the  revenues  of  such 
vacant  bishoprics.  Innocent  X.  (1644-1655)  opposed 
these  claims.  Under  Innocent  XI.  (1676-1689)  the 
Four  Articles  were  drawn  up  as  a  solution  of  the 
difficulty.  According  to  these  the  pope's  right  to  rule 
kings  was  denied.  It  was  stipulated  that  the  pope  was 
bound  by  canon  law,  also  that,  in  France,  French  law  was 
above  the  word  of  the  pope,  and,  finally,  that  even  his 
decisions  regarding  doctrine  might  be  reviewed  and  cor- 
rected by  the  whole  Church.  The  matter  was  com- 
promised at  the  end  by  the  surrender  of  the  Four 
Articles  by  Louis,  and  the  retention  of  the  prerogatives 
he  originally  claimed. 

Another  debate  within  the  Roman  Catholic  fold  was 
caused  by  the  revival  of  strict  Augustinianism.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  debate  dates  from  the  publica- 
jansenism.  tion  of  a  work  uuder  the  title  of  Concord  of 
Grace  and  Free  IViH,  in  1588,  by  the  Jesuit, 
Luis  Molina.  The  tendency  of  Molina  was  semi-Pelagian, 
and  he  was  opposed  to  the  Dominicans.  Pope  Clement 
VIII.  called  a  small  council  {Congregatio  de  Auxiliis, 
1597),  to  examine  the  question,  and  reconcile  the  parties. 
This  council  failed  to  accomplish  the  end  for  which  it 
had  come  together,  and  broke  up  in  1607.  About  this 
time  Cornelius  Jansen,  a  native  of  Holland,  and  bishop 
of  Ypres,  appeared  as  an  opponent  of  ISIolina's  views. 
He  had  studied  Augustine,  and  wrote  a  voluminous  work 
entitled  Augustinus,  advocating  a  return  to  the  teaching 
of  the  great  father.  In  this  he  had  the  aid  and  hearty 
support  of  St.  Cyran,  who  also  published  a  work 
advocating  Augustinianism,  under  the  title  of  Petrus 
Aurclius.  The  Jesuits  now  came  out  in  defense  of  the 
views  of  their  associate,  Molina.  The  controversy  waxed 
fierce.  The  original  disputants  disappeared  from  the 
scene.  Molina  had  died  in  1601  ;  Jansen  in  1638  ;  St. 
i7 


258  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Cyran  in  1643  ;  but  the  controversy  was  carried  on  by  a 
new  band  of  men  on  the  Jansenist  side — the  Port 
Royalists. 

Port  Royal  was  an  ancient  convent  which,  owing  to  the 
revival  of  Ufe  introduced  by  Angelique  Arnauld,  was  over- 
crowded and  abandoned  for  a  more   spacious 
Port  Royal.       homc  f or  its  inmatcs  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of 
Paris.      The  convent   was  then    occupied    by 
a  band  of    gentlemen,  at    whose  head  stood    Angelique 
Arnauld's   youngest  brother,    Anthony.     They  were  men 
devoted    to  letters,  philosophy,  and    religion.     Some   of 
them    won    places  for  themselves    in    French  literature. 
Such  are  Pascal,  Racine,  Boileau,  Lafontaine  and  others. 
These  men  took  up  the  defense  of  Jansen's  views  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Jesuits.     As  the  debate  progressed  the 
Port  Royalists  were  accused  of   holding  seven  heretical 
positions  contained  in  Jansen's  Augustinus.     These  were 
afterwards  reduced  to  five  as  follows:  (i)  Men  are  com- 
manded by  God  to  do  certain   things  which  they  cannot 
do.     (2)  Divine  grace  is   irresistible.     (3)  To  render  an 
action  meritorious,    it   is   not  necessary  that   it  should  be^ 
free  from  necessity,  but  simply  that  it  should  be  free  from* 
coercion.       (4)    The    semi-Pelagians  erred  in   ascribing 
to  the    human   will    the   power  to    cooperate.       (5)  Re- 
demption   (atonement)    is    not    universal.     These   errors 
were  condemned  by  Innocent  X.  in  1653.     The  Jansenists 
denied  that  they  were  to  be  found   in   the  Augustinus  in 
the  sense  condemned  by  the  pope.     The  pope  responded 
that  he  condemned  them,  "  as  of  Jansen  and  in  the  sense 
of  Jansen."     They  claimed  that   this  was  a  question   of 
fact,  and  that  papal  infallibility  could  not  certainly  extend 
to  facts.     Arnauld  continued  to  maintain  the  condemned 
views,  and  was  censured  by  the   Sorbonne  and  deprived 
of  his  doctorate. 

Arnauld    was    not,    however,  to    lead    Jansenism    into 

popular  favor.     His  style  was  too  abstruse  and  technical. 

The  task  of  popitlarizing  the  movement  fell  t(j 

Pascal  and  the    Pascal.      His    course    was    indirect.     Instead 

Leuil's.''''         of   expounding   Jansenism,    or    defending   it 

against   the  attacks   made  on  it,  he    issued  a 


THE  POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  259 

number  of  Provincial  Letters,  in  which  he  administered 
in  a  realistic  and  vivid  manner  a  most  stinging  and 
thorough  castigation  to  the  Jesuits.  The  Jesuits  were 
now  roused  to  the  pitch  of  fury.  They  procured  a  new 
condemnation  of  Jansenism  from  Pope  Alexander  VII.,  in 
1656.  This  the  French  Church  adopted,  and  constructed 
a  formulary  based  on  it.  Opposition  to  these  measures, 
or  even  refusal  to  accept  the  formulary,  including  the 
condemnation  of  Jansenism,  was  punished  by  imprison- 
ment. Port  Royal  was  taken  from  the  Jansenists,  and 
many  of  these  fled  the  country. 

But  the  controversy  was  not  destined  even   thus  to  be 
permanently  settled.     Clement   IX.  offered  a  pacification 
by  the  terms  of  which  Jansenism  was  given   a 
Quesnel's  Moral  certain  Standing,  and  continued  to  be  held  for 
Reflections.       some  time  longer.     When,    however,  Pascha- 
sius    Quesnel     published      his   Moral  Reflec- 
tions,    opposition     against    the  system    broke    out   with 
new  vigor.     The  pope  issued  the  bull  ///   Vineam  Domini, 
ignoring  the  pacification  under  which  the  Jansenists  were 
living.     Finally  Quesnel's  book  was  condemned  in  1705, 
and  Port  Royal  was  demolished.     But  to  make  the  over- 
throw  complete,    the   pope  issued  five  years 
Papal  Bulls.      later  the  bull,  Unigenitiis,  in  which  he  singled 
out  one  hundred  and  one  propositions  out  of 
Quesnel's  book  and  declared  them  heretical.     The  Jan- 
senists were    persecuted    and    fled    to    Holland.     They 
appealed  from   the  bull  Unigenitiis  to  a  general   council, 
and  continued  till  the  Vatican   Council,  under  the  name 
of  appellants  or  old  Catholics. 

Another  ripple  on  the  surface  of  Roman  Catholicism, 
but  of  much  less  serious  nature,  was  Quietism.    This  was 
a  form  of  Mysticism   propounded  by  Molinos, 
Quietism.  a  Spanish  priest  (1627-1696),  in  a  book  called 

77ie  Spiritual  Guide.  In  this  treatise  Molinos 
attempted  to  give  instruction  as  to  the  source  of  peace 
and  true  spiritual  life.  He  held  that  these  blessings  are 
to  be  found  only  incomplete  renunciation  into  the  hands 
of  God.  The  principle  seemed  to  render  superfluous  the 
rites,    ceremonies  and    institutions    of  the    Church,   and 


26o  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

roused  the  opposition  of  the  Jesuits.  The  views  of 
Molinos  were  condemned,  and  he  was  himself  thrown  into 
prison,  where  he  died. 

Mysticism,  however,  appeared  in  another   quarter  and 
threatened    a    more    serious    struggle  in    the  Church   of 

France,  Madame  Guyon  (1648-1717)  was  a 
Md'^FTifelon^""  l''idy  of  great  refinement  and  piety,    who  was 

married  by  her  parents,  for  worldly  reasons 
and  against  her  own  will.  Giving  herself  to  religious 
meditation,  she  came  to  frame  a  form  of  thought  essen- 
tially identical  with  that  of  Molinos.  Fe'nelon,  the  great 
French  writer,  examined  her  system,  and  not  only  found 
nothing  objectionable  in  it,  but  was  so  much  attracted  by 
it  that  he  adopted  it.  'I'he  eloquent  Bossuet,  bishop  of 
Meaux,  also  examined  it,  but  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
it  was  heretical.  Thus  the  debate  was  transferred  into 
high  ecclesiastical  circles.  Bossuet  was  undoubtedly  a 
pure-minded  and  able  ecclesiastic,  and  entertained  broad 
and  liberal  views  on  the  rights  of  the  papacy  with  reference 
to  the  Galilean  question.  But  he  was  moved  by  con- 
sistency to  take  the  attitude  of  intolerance  towards 
Fe'nelon  and  Madame  Guyon.  The  question  was  re- 
ferred to  the  pope,  Innocent  XII.,  who  in  1669  pro- 
nounced against  Mysticism,  and  Fe'nelon  retracted  his 
acceptance  of  it. 

A  vaguer    form  of  Mysticism  also  made  its  appearance 
and  escaped  condemnation.     This  was   the  Mysticism  of 

Francis  de  Sales  (11^67-1622),  nominally 
iaie^'''""' '''    bishop   of    Geneva,  and   author    of  Philothea 

("  The  Friend  of  God").  His  work  became 
the  favorite  with  devout  Catholics,  and  he  was  himself 
canonized. 

The    Jesuits   continued   through    the  seventeenth   and 
eighteenth  centuries  to  carry  on   their  work  of   bringing 

everything  into  subjection  to  the  will  of  the 
The  Jesuits  on    pope.     In    Europe  their  power  increased  day 

the  Mission  i  ,  i   ,  ,•  i 

Field.  by  day,  and  became  astandmg  menace  to  the 

stability  and  independence  of  the  govern- 
ments within  whose  jurisdiction  they  carried  on  their 
work.      Abroad   their  policy   of    accommodating    Chris- 


THE  POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  261 

tianity  to  the  heathen  notions  of  the  peoples  of  their 
missions  became  offensive.  Complaints  were  preferred 
to  the  pope  against  them.  The  pope  sent  Tournon  (1668- 
17 10),  a  legate,  to  investigate  and  correct  the  evil  of  ac- 
commodation. Tournon  was  seized  by  the  native  autho- 
rities with  whom  the  Jesuit  missionaries  had  gained  great 
influence,  and  cast  into  prison,  where  he  died.  Commu- 
nication between  the  pope  and  the  mission  field  was  thus 
broken  except  through  the  missionaries.  It  was  only  after 
the  lapse  of  forty  years  that  the  system  of  accommodation 
was  stopped.  But  with  its  cessation  came  a  decline  in 
the  missionary  work  and  dissatisfaction  with  the  mis- 
sionaries. 

From  another  source  Jesuitism  received  a  check  of  a 
different  nature.     This  was  the  popular  disfavor  created 

by  the  exposure  of  its  methods  and  principles 
^  Home"''^     in  the  conflict  with  Jansenism.     Not  only  did 

the  Pro7'iucial  Letters  show  in  a  vivid  manner 
its  morally  unsound  principles,  but  the  actual  course  of 
the  Jesuits  in  the  crusade  against  Port  Royal,  the  excesses 
to  which  they  resorted,  and  the  needless  oppression  of 
innocent  and  unoffending  men  brought  about  a  reaction 
against  them. 

Under  these  circumstances  Jesuitism,  was  called  upon 
to  struggle  for  its  own  life.     The  members  of  the  order 

began  to  be  excluded  from  European  countries 
th"e''or'dei°"  °    whosc  adherence  to   the  papal  system  never 

had  been  and  could  not  be  questioned. 
Portugal  first  expelled  them  in  1759  ;  Spain  and  Sicily  in 
1766,  France  in  1764.  The  conflict  grew  desperate. 
Papal  elections  began  to  hinge  on  the  question  of  the 
treatment  of  Jesuits.  Finally  Clement  XIV.  (1769-1774), 
who  was  elected  as  the  leader  of  the  anti-Jesuit  party, 
formally  suppressed  the  order  in  1773.  He  died  the  next 
year  under  suspicious  circumstances.  Meanwhile  the 
Jesuits  took  refuge  in  Protestant  countries  and  continued 
to  exist  and  work  until  their  restoration  in  the  following 
period. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

LUTHERAN   ORTHODOXY  AND   DISSENT. 

LuTHERANiSM  flourished  in  Northern  Germany  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries.     In  other  places  it  never  became 

more  than  an  occasional  and  exotic  system. 
Lutheranism  in  'fhe  Thirty  Years'  War  put  the  Lutheran 
ScaiSlnavk.      System  on  a  sound   and  firm  foundation  ;  but 

this,  instead  of  proving  a  pure  blessing,  turned 
out  to  be  the  source  of  many  evils.  With  the  sense  of 
safety  from  attack  came  a  looseness  in  moral  and  spirit- 
ual life  very  detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  the  Church. 
And  side  by  side  with  moral  and  spiritual  laxity  sprang 
up  and  grew  a  finished  and  formal  theology. 

The  first  break  with   cold  orthodoxy  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  made  by  the  Pietists.     Philip  Jacob  Spener 

(1633-1705)  was  a  zealous  and  devoted  pastor 
Pietism.  Spener.  at    Frankfort-on-the-Main.       Impressed    with 

the  need  of  more  spiritual  life,  he  organized 
in  1670,  a  system  of  meetings,  for  persons  of  the  same 
mind  with  himself,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  Scrip- 
tures. Removing  to  Dresden  a  little  later,  and  still  later 
to  Berlin,  he  carried  the  germ  of  similar  associations  for 
spiritual  culture  into  these  places.  The  Wittenberg  the- 
ologians looked  upon  this  movement  with  apprehension, 
and  as  it  grew  they  openly  opposed  it.  Thus  the  Pietistic 
controversy  arose. 

One  of  the  foremost  among  the  Pietists  was  August  Her- 
mann Francke  (1663-1727).     With  other  learned  men  he 

undertook  to  lecture  on  the  New  Testament, 
Francke.  but    being    obliged    by    the    theologians    of 

Leipzig  to  leave  that  city  he  was  called  by  his 
associates  in  Pietism  to  the  newly  established  university 
of  Halle,  which  was  to  be  the  fountain-head  of  a  new  in- 
262 


LUTHERAN  ORTHODOXY  AND  DISSENT.  263 

fluence.  The  Pietists  also  founded  the  orphan  asylum 
at  Halle,  and  in  other  ways  spread  among  the  people  a 
purer  and  more  Biblical  conception  of  the  Christian 
religion. 

The  influence  of  Pietism  was  perpetuated  and  spread 
through  the  remarkable  personality  of  Count  Louis  Zin- 
zendorf  (1700-1760),  who  was  educated  at  the 
Zinzendorf.  Halle  Orphan  Asylum.  Being  a  man  of 
means  and  having  heard  of  the  sufferings  of 
the  Moravian  Brethren  (Hussites),  in  Bohemia,  Zinzen- 
dorf offered  them  a  refuge  in  his  own  estates  in  Upper 
Lusatia.  Here  they  founded  the  village  of  Herrnhut 
(1722),  Here  also  Zinzendorf  after  joining  them  was 
appointed  their  bishop.  But  he  was  not  left  to  administer 
the  affairs  of  his  colony  of  Moravians  unmolested.  The 
Saxon  government  stepped  in  and  sentenced  him  to  ban- 
ishment. This  led  to  extended  wanderings  on  the  part 
of  Zinzendorf  which,  however,  he  used  as  the  occasion  of 
missionary  work.  Thus  there  arose  a  number  of  com- 
munities in  the  wake  of  Zinzendorf's  travels  in  Holland, 
England,  and  America.  In  the  last-named  land  Bethle- 
hem, Nazareth,  and  Litiz,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Salem  in 
North  Carolina  became  flourishing  colonies  of  Moravian 
Brethren. 

Meanwhile  the  British  government  recognized  the 
Moravian  Brethren  as  a  Protestant  Church  in  1749,  and 
the  Saxon  government  did  the  same  as  soon 
BrethreT"''^"  ^s  the  Moraviaus  accepted  the  Augsburg 
Confession.  The  way  for  Zinzendorf's  return 
to  Germany  was  thus  opened.  He  resumed  his  place  of 
bishop  at  Herrnhut  and  labored  there  until  his  death. 
His  spiritual  life  found  expression  in  many  ways,  the 
most  permanent  of  which  was  hymn-writing.  He  composed 
a  large  number  of  classical  hymns,  some  of  them  used  to 
this  day.  The  missionary  churches  he  planted  were 
carried  on  by  the  Moravians  after  his  death. 

The  Moravian   theology  was  threatened  at  one   time 
with  a  number  of  coarse  and  extravagant  features,  the 
whole  drift  of  which  was  the  literal  interpreta- 
The^iogy.         ^'^'^  "^^  ^'""^  figures  of  the  fatherhood   and  son- 
ship  in  which  the  relations  of  the  Trinity  are 


264  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

expressed  in  the  Bible,  and  the  marriage  relation  as  typical 
of  the  union  of  Christ  and  the  Church.  The  Moravians 
also  separated  between  the  human  and  divine  elements 
in  the  nature  of  Jesus  Christ  in  order  to  exalt  the  divine 
and  depreciate  the  human.  The  system  was,  however, 
purged  of  these  features,  and  continued  to  act  as  a  leaven 
of  spiritual  and  practical  Christianity  through  the  eight- 
eenth century. 

Another  departure  from  Lutheran  orthodoxy  of  a  much 
more  radical  character  was  that  led  by  Emmanuel  Swe- 
denborg  (1688-1772).  Swedenborg  was  a 
Swedenborg.  Swedish  gentleman  of  great  learning  who  held 
a  place  under  the  civil  government  in  the 
College  of  Mines,  and  was  thus  led  to  studies  in  natural 
science.  But  turning  his  attention  to  religious  subjects, 
he  gave  up  all  secular  employments  and  removed  to 
London,  where  he  elaborated  his  peculiar  system  and 
wrote  his  works.  At  the  age  of  fifty-five  he  claimed  that 
he  had  acquired  the  power  of  spiritual  insight,  whereby  he 
saw  spiritual  realities,  understood  the  language  of  angels, 
and  even  beheld  the  Lord,  The  information  that  came 
to  him  through  this  channel  he  wrote  down  in  numerous 
books,  especially  the  Arcana  Coelestia. 

The  system  of  Swedenborg  is  based  on  the  principle 
that  the  spiritual  world  is  identical  with  the  material. 
The  universe  is  one  whole  existing  in 
Swedenborgian-  j-^q  halves,  of  which  the  outward  and 
visible  is  a  counterpart  of  the  inward  and 
spiritual.  God  is  infinite  and  his  essence  is  love  and 
wisdom  ;  but  he  exists  in  human,  though  not  material 
form.  God  manifests  himself  sometimes  as  the  Father, 
sometimes  as  the  Son,  and  sometimes  as  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Jesus  was  a  mere  man  bodily  in  whom  God  the  Father 
had  taken  his  abode  temporarily.  There  is  no  original 
sin,  hence  no  justification  by  faith  is  possible,  and  no 
vicarious  sacrificial  atonement  necessary.  Resurrection 
is  spiritual,  not  of  the  body.  The  Bible  (excluding,  how- 
ever, some  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  and  some 
of  the  epistles)  must  be  accepted  as  containing  a  revela- 


LUTHERAN  ORTHODOXY  AND  DISSENT.  265 

tion,  but  must  be  interpreted  in  a  threefold  sense  :  the 
literal,  the  spiritual,  and  the  celestial. 

The   organization  of  the  Swedenborgian  Church   was 

based  on  the  claim  that  the  last  judgment  took  place  in 

1757    and    the    "New    Jerusalem"     of     the 

The  New  jeru- Apocalypse  descended   at  that  time   from  the 

salem  Church.     .    '■  ■' '^     ,„,  .       _.  ^  i  •        i  i  i 

heavens.  1  his  New  Jerusalem  is  the  church 
of  believers  in  the  system  of  Swedenborg.  The  system 
found  adherents  partly  because  of  its  reactionary  ten- 
dency against  rationalism,  and  partly  because  of  the  con- 
cessions to  rationalism  in  some  particulars. 

Of  purely  theological  controversies,  the  earliest  was 
that  in  which  the  theologians  of  Giessen  on  one  side  and 
Kenotic-  thosc  of   Tiibingen  on    the  other  engaged  re- 

Cryptic  Con-  garding  the  nature  of  Christ's  humiliation. 
troversy.  rpj^^  theologiaus  of  Gicssen   held  that  in   the 

humiliation  the  eternal  Logos  had  laid  aside  all  divine 
powers  and  attributes.  This  was  called  the  doctrine  of 
the  Kenosis.  The  Tubingen  men  on  the  other  side  taught 
that  the  humiliation  consists  not  in  the  laying  aside,  but 
in  the  concealing  of  the  divine  attributes,  and  in  using 
them  according  to  the  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This 
view  is  called  the  Cryptic.  Jesus  Christ  according  to  them 
was  possessed  of  the  divine  powers  even  as  man  {secundum 
caniem).     The  controversy  was  never  settled  ofificially. 

Another  controversy  of  a  more  practicaPnature  arose 
out  of  the  efforts  of  George  Calixt  or  Calixtus  (1586-1656) 
to  bring  about  a  reunion  of  all  Christians  in  one  great 
Church.  Calixtus  proposed  to  ignore  differences  and 
combine  the  various  Christian  churches  on  a  broad  basis. 
This  was  called  Syncretism,  and  was  opposed  by  the  Wit- 
tenberg theologians,  especially  Calovius  (16 12-1686). 
Calovius  charged  Calixtus  and  the  Syncretists  with  the 
error  of  considering  the  Apostles'  Creed  a  sufficient  ex- 
pression of  the  Christian  faith.     He  further  accused  them 

of  holding  that  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the 
Caiixtine  Con-    Reformed  had  enough  fundamental  truth   in 

troversy.  .  i  i         •  r      i 

Syncretism.        their   systcms  to  securc   the  salvation   of  the 

souls    of    those    who    accepted    them.       Still 

further  he  found  fault  with  them  for  teaching   that  the 


266  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  first  revealed  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  that  sin  is  a  negative  thing  and  not  a  sep- 
arate entity.  This  debate  also,  like  the  Kenotic  contro- 
versy, was  carried  on  without  a  definite  result.  Neither 
side  received  formal  approval  or  condemnation. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE   ANGLICAN    AND     REFORMED   CHURCHES.      ' 

After  the  establishment  of  the  Commonwealth  in 
England,  for  eleven  years  the  Independents  controlled 
Cromwell  and  Church  and  State.  In  spite  of  the  principle  of 
the  inde-  separatism    professed    by    the  Independents, 

pendents.  Cromwell,  their  political  leader,  found  himself 

under  the  necessity  of  drawing  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  religious  denomination  in  the  ascendant  and 
all  others.  Roman  Catholics  were  disfranchised.  Epis- 
copalians were  not  allowed  to  use  the  Prayer  Book, 
Presbyterians  and  Baptists,  though  more  favored,  were 
kept  in  check  in  other  ways.  A  board  of  Triers  ex- 
amined and  passed  on  candidates  for  the  ministry.  And 
this  board  was  kept  closely  under  the  control  of  the  In- 
dependents. The  ministry  was  supported  by  tithes,  and 
religion  as  understood  by  the  governing  body  was  sus- 
tained and  advanced  by  the  State. 

When  the  Commonwealth  gave  place  to  the  royalty 
under  Charles  II.  the  Episcopalians  once  more  took  up 
the  work  of  coercing  the  whole  realm  to  their 
Charles  II.  views  and  practices.  In  1662  the  Act  of 
Conformity  was  passed,  requiring  every  minis- 
ter to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the  king  in  the  Church, 
and  declare  against  transubstantiation.  Two  thousand 
ministers  refused  to  do  the  first  of  these  and  were  ejected 
from  their  livings.  As  the  ejected  ministers  undertook  to 
hold  meetings  in  other  places  than  the  churches,  a  Con- 
venticle Act  was  passed  two  years  later,  forbidding  all 
meetings  for  worship  except  at  the  recognized  churches. 
The  following  year  the  lines  were  made  faster  by  the 
passing  of  the  Five-mile  Act  forbidding  any  non-conform- 

267 


268  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ing  minister  from  residing  within  five  miles  of  any  corpo- 
rate town,  or  from  teaching  school. 

Scotland  also  was  called  upon  again  to  struggle  for  its 
Presbyterian  government.     The   laws  enacted  for  Eng- 
land   were  of  course  to  be  enforced  also  in 
Scotland.  Scotland.     While  there  was  no  open  outbreak 

Lameronians.  •  ,  i  i  i  i  i 

agamst  these  laws,  there  was,  on  the  other 
hand,  no  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  Scotch  to  relax  in 
their  adherence  to  presbytery,  or  give  up  the  Covenant 
under  which  their  fathers  had  lived  and  fought.  The 
consequence  was  a  series  of  bloody  persecutions.  For  a 
time  the  Covenanters  were  driven  to  the  remote  and 
desert  places,  and  even  here  they  were  tracked  by  armed 
cavalry  under  John  Graham  of  Claverhouse  (i 650-1 689), 
shot  down  or  cut  down,  and  their  possessions  plundered 
and  destroyed.  But  all  these  barbarities,  instead  of  extin- 
guishing the  flame  of  Presbyterianism,  only  fanned  it  to 
greater  brightness.  Richard  Cameron  and  the  Cameron- 
ians  openly  defied  the  government  and  propounded  the 
doctrine  that  a  Christian  should  not  acknowledge  alle- 
giance to  a  government  unless  Christ  was  recognized  as 
its  head. 

James  II.  was   an  avowed  Catholic.     He  reinstituted 
the  Court  of  High  Commission,  made  the  infamous  Lord 
Jeffrey  presiding  judge,  and  brought  Richard 
James  II.  Baxter    to  trial.     Baxter,  after  being  shame- 

fully abused  by  the  judge,  was  convicted  ;  and 
the  king,  encouraged  by  seeming  success  in  this  case,  went 
on  to  Romanize  the  Church  by  issuing  indulgences,  with 
the  ultimate  end  in  view  of  reinstating  Roman  Catholics 
in  office.  But  in  this  he  overstepped  the  limits  of  the 
people's  patience.  The  bishops  refused  to  publish  the 
indulgences,  and  the  attempt  to  punish  them  for  this  re- 
fusal brought  about  the  overthrow  of  the  Stuart  dynasty 
and  the  revolution  of  1688. 

William  III.  was  a  Presbyterian,  but  did  not,  like  his 

predecessors,  attempt  to  foist  his  personal  creed  on  the 

nation.     He  exempted   non-conformists  from 

wu^amand      ^jj  unfavorable  legislation,   but  required  the 

approval  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  the  oath 


THE  ANGLICAN  AND  REFORMED  CHURCHES.  269 

of  supremacy,  and  repudiation  of  transubstantiation. 
Queen  Anne  favored  Episcopalianism  and  established  the 
Bounty  Fund,  which  bears  her  name,  out  of  the  reve- 
nues sequestered  by  Henry  VIII.  from  the  pope.  This 
fund  was  used  to  build  parsonages  and  to  supplement  the 
income  of  the  poorer  parishes. 

It  was  during  Anne's  reign  that  the  peace  of  the  Church 
was  disturbed  by  the  Sacheverell  case.     Dr.  Sacheverell 

charged  the  Whig  ministry  with  partiality  to 
Queen  Anne,     the     non-confomiists.       They     resented    the 

charge  and  treated  him  with  some  severity. 
The  sympathies  of  the  queen  and  people  were  enlisted 
on  his  side,  and  at  the  Parliamentary  elections  the  Whig 
party  were  put  out  of  office  and  a  Tory  ministry  took 
their  place.  The  Tory  Parliament  also  enacted  some 
legislation  drawing  the  lines  more  rigidly  against  non- 
conformists. 

With  the  accession  of  the  Georges,  the  English  Church 
fell  into  a  state  of  inactivity.     Convocation  was  dissolved 

for  censuring  an  Erastian  sermon  preached  by 
Douum.  Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor,  on  the  "  Nature  of 

the  Kingdom  of  Christ,"  and  did  not  meet 
again  till  1834.  The  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  passed  exclusively  into  the  hands  of  the  civil  gov- 
ernment. The  suppression  of  all  opposition  to  the  exist- 
ing order  of  things,  whether  on  the  part  of  non-jurors 
(those  who  would  not  take  the  oath  to  maintain  the 
supremacy  of  the  crown  in  the  Church)  or  Roman  Catho- 
lics was  attempted.  The  latter  especially  became  the 
subjects  of  oppressive  measures.  Walpole,  in  1722, 
raised  the  sum  of  ;^ioo,ooo  by  a  tax  on  the  estates  of 
Roman  Catholics  and  non-jurors.  He  also  established 
the  Regttan  Do)ih77i  as  a  bonus  to  dissenting  ministers. 

The  Reformed  Church  on  the  Continent  was  legalized 
in  Germany  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  but 

in  the  very  country  of  Richelieu,  who  was, 
churchln  above  all  others,  instrumental  in  securing  the 

France.  treaty,    the  privileges  of  the  Reformed    were 

made  the  object  of  a  steady  series  of  onslaughts. 
First,  by  peaceful  efforts  made  to  induce  the  Protestants 


270 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


to  give  up  voluntarily  the  edict  of  Nantes.  This  edict 
stood  in  the  way  of  the  policy  of  centralization  inaugu- 
rated by  Louis  XIV.  When  it  was  found  that  the  Re- 
formed Church  would  not  surrender  its  Charter  volun- 
tarily, the  king  simply  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes  (1685), 
and  at  one  stroke  outlawed  a  large  section  of  his  king- 
dom. The  Reformed  was  once  more  a  persecuted  church. 
Under  the  name  of  the  Church  in  the  Desert  it  continued, 
in  spite  of  the  laws  against  it,  for  over  one  hundred  years. 
In  1787  Louis  XVL  restored  legal  recognition  to  it,  but 
the  Revolution  was  too  near  its  outbreak  at  that  date 
to  allow  the  Protestants  to  make  immediate  use  of  their 
restored  privileges. 

In  Switzerland  the  drift  of  thought  was  against  the 
strictest  forms  of  theological  definition  which  had  pre- 
vailed in  the  preceding  ages.  Francis  Tur- 
TuSn"^^"'*'  retin  had  put  Calvinism  in  his  Institutio  The- 
olog'ue  Elencticce  into  very  precise  terms.  His 
son,  Jean  Alphonse  (''  the  Younger  Turretin  "),  quietly 
but  effectually  modified  his  father's  system.  He  also 
entered  into  the  less  successful  movement  of  bringing 
about  a  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland.  In  this  he  was  supported  and 
encouraged  by  the  king,  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia.  But 
the  theological  difficulties  in  the  way  proved  insurmount- 
able. 

In  the  Netherlands  a  controversy  arose  on  the  question 

of  Sabbath  observance,  involving  naturally  other  moral 

and    religious    practices.     William    Teellinck 

The  Nether-      {x^zq)  was  the  Originator  of  a  pictistic  move- 

lands.  \  -"     ,   .    ,  °    .      ,  1        T7       i-  'T'l 

ment  which  was  carried  on  by  Voetius.  1  he 
pietistic  views  were  systematized  and  even  presented  in 
academic  lectures  at  Utrecht  by  Voetius,  under  the  title  of 
Ascetical  Theology,  Cocceius  advocated  the  abolition 
of  the  law  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  opposed  Voetius. 
Both  the  Cocceians  and  the  Voetians  took  extreme  ground 
during  the  course  of  the  controversy,  the  first  verging  on 
antinomianism  and  the  latter  bordering  on  the  Roman 
Catholic  doctrine  of  meritorious  works. 

Cocceius   also  formulated  a  system  of  theology  which 
has  been  known  sometimes  after  him  as  the  Cocceian 


THE  ANGLICAN  AND  REFORMED  CHURCHES.  271 

system,  and  sometimes  after  its  fundamental 
Cocceiansand  principle,  the  Federal  or  Covenant  Theology. 
Federal"  -The  idea  of  religion  as  a  covenant  between 

Theology.  God  and  man  was  suggested  by  BuUinger. 
Cocceius  took  the  suggestion  and,  searching 
the  Scriptures,  discovered  three  covenants  in  them,  around 
which  all  of  God's  work  might  be  grouped  as  about 
centers.  The  first  was  the  Covenant  of  Redemption  be- 
tween the  Father  and  Son  ;  the  second  the  Covenant  of 
Works  between  Adam,  as  the  representative  of  the  human 
race,  and  God ;  and  the  third  the  Covenant  of  Grace. 
This  last  was  to  be  found  in  successive  historic  forms  as 
(i)  the  pre-Mosaic  Covenant,  (2)  the  Mosaic  law,  and  (3) 
the  Gospel  Dispensation,  which  again  was  unfolded  in 
seven  periods  according  to  the  cycles  of  seven  in  the 
book  of  Revelation.  While  the  system,  in  its  detailed 
form,  runs  into  arbitrary  and  unhistorical  interpretations 
of  the  Scriptures,  to  Cocceius  must  be  conceded  the  credit 
of  having  at  least,  with  partial  success,  transferred  the- 
ology from  the  scholastic  basis  to  the  scriptural  data. 

After  the  Synod  of  Dort  Arminianism  was  allowed  to 
exist  in  the  Reformed  Church  only  by  sufferance.  At- 
tempts were  not  lacking,  however,  to  find  a 
Th'eok)'^!'"  middle  ground  on  which  Arminianism  and 
Calvinism  might  fraternize.  Such  an  attempt 
was  the  Amyraldian  or  Placean  theology  taught  in  the 
school  of  Saumur,  in  France.  Placeus  (LaPlace  1605- 
1655)  denied  the  direct  and  immediate  imputation  of 
Adam's  sin  to  his  posterity,  and  asserted  that  each  individ- 
ual appropriates  this  sin  for  himself  in  the  first  voluntary  or 
responsible  act.  Amyrault  (also  of  Saumur,  1 596-1664) 
proposed,  in  addition  to  the  view  of  Placeus,  the  doctrine 
of  Hypotlietical  Universalism,  or  that  God  predestinates  all 
men  to  salvation  on  condition  of  faith.  He  gives  to  all 
men  grace  to  cooperate  with  his  Spirit ;  but  this  grace  is 
resistible.  All  men  would  reject  his  offer  and  be  lost.  He, 
therefore,  by  an  absolute  decree,  elects  some,  predestines 
them  to  salvation  unconditionally,  and  endows  them  with 
irresistible  grace.  These  views  were  rejected  in  the 
Formula  Consensus  Helvetica  in  1675. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PHILOSOPHY   AND   THEOLOGY. 

In  order  to  understand  with  some  degree  of  fullness 
the  theological  movements  that  have  not  thus  far  been 
spoken  of,  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  at  least  a 
Bacon.  general  view  of  the  cycle  of  philosophy  which 

begins  with  Bacon  and  ends  in  Kant.  Francis 
Bacon  of  Verulam  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  course  of 
thought  by  criticising  the  scholastics  for  their  neglect  of 
natural  science  and  introducing  the  inductive  principle 
into  logical  method.  The  father  of  modern  philos- 
ophy, however,  is  DesCartes  (1596-1650),  who  set  aside 
all  previous  systems,  no  matter  how  hoary,  seductive,  and 
infixed  in  the  minds  of  men  they  might  have  seemed  to 
be,  and  began  with  an  attempt  to  find  the  surest  element 
of  knowledge  as  a  new  beginning.  This  he  reached  in 
the  proposition  "I  think,  therefore  I  am"  {Cogi/o,  ergo 
sum).  From  this  as  a  beginning  he  then  proceeded  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  world  and  of  God. 

But  whereas   DesCartes   reached  positive  conclusions 

consistent  with  Christian  faith   and  even   auxiliary  to  it, 

starting    from   the    point   of    absolute    doubt, 

DesCartes.       others  landed  elsewhere  on  following  the  same 

Spinoza.  ...  ,  ^  ^ 

Locke.   Leib-    coursc.       Benedict    Spinoza    (1632-1677),    a 
"^'^'  renegade  Jew  who  lived  in  Amsterdam,  built 

on  a  few  fundamental  premises  which  he  assumed  as 
axioms,  a  most  consistent  and  thoroughgoing  system  of 
pantheism.  John  Locke  (1632-1704)  propounded  the 
view  that  the  mind  is  a  blank  on  which  knowledge  comes 
through  the  senses,  a  doctrine  that  was  destined  to  exert 
272 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  THEOLOGY.  ,7-, 

a  far-reaching  influence,    Locke's  philosophy  was  not,  how- 
ever,  allowed  to  pass  unchallenged.       It  found  a  severe 
critic    in    Gottfried    \^'ilhelm   Leibnitz  (1646-17 16),  Avho 
aimed  in  his  own  system  to   combine  the  best  points  in 
the  philosophies  of  DesCartes   and  Spinoza, 
in  Phiiofophy.^  avoiding  what  he  deemed  their   errors.      He 
^"d'wMf"^"''' P^°P°""^^*^  *^^  theory  of  "monads,"'   work- 
ing together  by  a  law  of  "  preestablished  har- 
mony," which  God  has  ordained  with    the  creation.     He 
also  touched  on  the   problem    of   evil   and  put  forth  the 
view    that    the    world  is  the  best  possible.*     Leibnitz's 
philosophy  was  reduced  into  a  system  of  rationalism  when 
rigidly  applied  to  religion  by  Christian  Wolf  (1679-1754). 
From  another  side  the   sensationalism   of  Locke   pro- 
voked Bishop   Berkeley  (1684-1753)  to  resort  to  an  ex- 
planation of  the  world,  which  has  been  called 
Berkeley.  idealism.     According  to  this  view  matter  has 

no  real  external  existence.  It  is  only  a 
creation  of  the  mind.  The  apparently  objective  phe- 
nomena of  matter  are  produced  in  the  consciousness  ac- 
cording to  a  settled  order  fixed  by  the  divine  mind. 
This  philosophical  cycle,  which  began  with  the  new  start 
of  DesCartes,  was  closed  by  Immanuel  Kant 
Kant.  (1724-1804).     Kant's    philosophical    work  is 

twofold.  It  has  a  critical  and  destructive 
side  and  a  positive  or  constructive  side.  In  the  critical 
part  of  his  philosophy  Kant  attempts  to  drive  back 
thought  from  the  dogmatism  where  W'oll  had  led  it.  He 
strives  to  show  that  by  the  use  of  the  pure  reason  man 
cannot  reach  certainty  on  the  simplest  and  most  funda- 
mental questions.  The  ideas  of  God,  of  substance,  of 
freedom,  of  immortality,  are  necessary,  he  argued,  for 
the  purpose  of  thought.  They  keep  together,  when 
assumed,  the  complex  subjective  world.  But  they  can- 
not be  used  as  a  basis  of  reasoning  without  leading  to 
contradictions.  In  the  constructive  side  of  his  work  Kant 
rebuilt  the  structure  he  had  demolished  in  the  critical. 
Starting  from  the  sense  of  duty  (the  "categorical  im- 
perative "  which  issues  in  the  "  Thou  oughtest "  of  the 

*  Optimism. 


274  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

conscience)  he  argued  the  freedom  of  man,  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  the  existence  of  God.  Kant  was 
not  an  evangelical  thinker,  but  his  influence  on  Christian 
theology  has  been,  both  directly  and  indirectly,  very 
great. 

Side  by  side  with  the  philosophical  movement  and  pro- 
duced by  the  same  causes,  perhaps,  a  philosophy  of  re- 
ligion   made    its    appearance    with    a   purely 
Deism.  naturalistic  basis.     Its  ultimate  standard  and 

Herbert  of  ,        ,  i  •    i 

Cherbury.  sourcc  was  the  human  reason,  a  feature  which 
gave  it  the  name  Rationalism.  In  England, 
where  it  first  came  into  vogue,  this  rationalism  took  the 
form  of  deism.  Edward  Herbert,  Lord  of  Cherbury 
(1581-1648),  the  first  of  the  deists,  sought  to  reduce  all 
religion  to  five  simple  and  primary  beliefs  reached  directly 
by  reflection.  These  are  (t)  the  existence  of  God,  (2)  the 
the  duty  of  reverencing  him,  (3)  the  obligation  to  live  an 
upright  life,  (4)  atonement  for  sin  by  genuine  repentance, 
and  (5)  rewards  and  punishments  in  a  life  after  death. 
All  else  is,  according  to  him,  superstition. 

Thomas   Hobbes    (i  588-1 679)     wrote     the    Lei'iathan 
(by  this  term  he  designates  the  State),  taking  the  ground 
that  the  necessity  for  morality  and  religion  is 
HobbS.  to   be   found    in    the  constitution  of  society. 

Each  individual  is  governed  by  self-love. 
When  the  interests  of  one  clash  with  those  of  others  there 
arises  the  need  of  a  power  over  all  to  preserve  peace. 
This  power  is  vested  in  the  State.  In  order  to  perform 
its  functions  the  State  must  have  unlimited  authority. 
The  ground  of  all  right  is  therefore  expediency.  Religion 
is  a  result  of  social  organization  and  must  be  controlled 
by  the  State. 

Charles  Blount   (1654-1693)  attempted  to  institute  a 
comparison   between  Christianity  and  ancient  pagan  phi- 
losophy, with  the  intention  of  exalting  the  latter 
Charl^  Blount,  abovc  Christianity.    John  Toland  (1660-1772), 

John  Toland.  .  .,  ■'         ■'     .        .     .  ^  i, 

Anthony  Collins. Starting    With    the    principle     announced    by 

Locke    in  behalf  of  revealed   religion,    "  that 

there    is    nothing    in    Christianity    contrary    to    reason," 

attempted  to  prove  that  there  is  nothing  in  it  above  rea- 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  THEOLOGY. 


275 


son,  and  that  therefore  the  mysteries  now  found  in  it  are 
derived  from  the  Jewish  system,  or  from  pagan  phi- 
losophy. Anthony  Collins  (1676-1729)  made  a  plea  for 
free  thought  as  a  necessary  condition  for  a  wise  choice 
of  the  true  religion,  and  was  effectually  answered  by  the 
great  scholar,  Richard  Bentley  (1662-1742), 
Eentley.  under  the  assumed    name    of     Phileleutherus 

Bolmgbroke.  .       .  .  t-.         i  i    • 

Lipsiensis.  Bentley  claimed  that  freedom  of 
thought  must  include  freedom  from  the  presuppositions 
of  the  skeptics.  Lord  Bolingbroke  (1678-1751),  held  that 
natural  religion  is  the  original  truth  about  which  tradition 
and  priestcraft  and  statecraft  have  gathered  superstitious 
growth  that  must  be  set  aside.  Similar  positions  were 
held  by  other  deists,  such  as  Matthew  Tindal  (1657- 
1733),  Thomas  Morgan  (1743),  and  Thomas  Woolston 
(1669-1733). 

A  shade  different  was  the  mode  of  reasoning  adopted 
by  David  Hume  (1711-1776),  who  elaborated  the  sen- 
sationalism   of    Locke    into    a   philosophical 
Hume.  skepticism.     In  his  Essay  on  Miracles,  Hume 

takes  the  ground  that  miracles  cannot  be 
proved.  Belief  is  founded  on  experience ;  since  we 
have  no  experience  of  miracles,  but  have  the  experience 
of  the  untrustworthiness  of  testimony,  no  testimony  can 
establish  the  truth  of  miracles. 

English    deism   passed  over  into  Europe  and  spread 
in   France  and   Germany,      In   France,  views  similar  to 
those  of  the    English  deists  had  been   enter- 
French  Deists,  tained  as  early  as   Rabelais  and   Montaigne, 
but  the  suppression  of  Protestantism   checked 
all  freedom  of  expression  until  the  appearance  of  Voltaire 
(1694-17 78).     Voltaire  was  a  versatile  genius  and  a  bril- 
liant literary  man,  much  admired  and  feared  by 
Voltaire.  his  Contemporaries.       He  was  lacking  in  finer 

ThrSrcycio-     spiritual  insight  and  failed  to  appreciate  the 
pedists.  greatness    of    the  works  of  Shakespeare,  and 

the  still  more  refined  spiritual  life  of  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Bible.  His  only  article  of  faith,  so  far  as 
known,  was  belief  in  God.  His  influence  on  the  France 
of  his    generation  was,  however,   vast    and     pernicious. 


276  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

Rousseau  (17 13-1778)  was  more  original  than  Voltaire, 
but  did  not  go  beyond  the  English  deists.  Finally, 
in  the  Encyclopedists,  Diderot,  D'AIembert  and  Baron 
d'Holbach,  deism  passed  into  materialism  and  atheism, 
relegating  the  ideas  of  God,  of  immortality,  and  of  duty, 
into  the  world  of  evil  superstitions  that  must  be  done 
away  with. 

In  Germany   rationalism   developed  a  character   of   its 

own.     The  philosophy  of  Wolf  had  paved  the  way  for  it. 

It  was    called  the  Illumination   {Aufkldri/ig) 

German  Ration-  because   it  seemed  to  its  advocates  to  dispel 

alisra.  Ill  r  •   •  II- 

the  darkness  of  superstition  and  usher  in  a 
period  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  light.  It  was  different 
from  English  deism  in  that  it  did  not  remain  within  the 
narrow  circle  of  a  few  learned  men,  but  passed  into  the 
masses.  It  was  moreover  adopted  by  the  Church  leaders 
and  leavened  preaching  and  religious  thinking.  It  was 
made  a  rule  for  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  and  finally 
for  judging  of  the  validity  and  value  of  the  teachings  of 
the  Scriptures.  In  this  form  it  secured  a  permanent  hold 
in  German  theology,  and  persisted  as  a  constant  factor 
when  in  England  and  France  deism  had  disappeared  as 
one  of  the  passing  fashions. 

The  period  of  the  Illumination  in  Germany  coincides 
with  the  reign  of  Frederick  II.  (i  740-1 786).     Frederick 

was  a  deist  and  gathered  in  his  court  the 
Frederick  II.     leading  f lec-thinker  s  of   France.     Beginning 

J3cscncr<ition  •  . 

of  the  Pulpit,  with  a  plea  for  freedom  of  worship  for  all  re- 
ligions he  ended  by  harassing  the  evangeli- 
cals like  Francke.  Under  his  patronage  Voltaire,  La 
Mettrie  and  others  issued  their  attacks  on  the  Christian 
religion.  The  publishing  house  of  Nicolai  became  the 
fountainhead  of  skeptical  literature,  and  the  stream  seemed 
to  break  up  and  diffuse  itself  into  the  whole  community. 
The  pulpit  degenerated  into  a  platform  for  lectures  on 
philanthropy,  on  health,  agriculture,  gardening,  and  every- 
thing except  the  gospel,  which  on  the  other  hand  was  the 
butt  of  open  attacks.  The  ritual  part  of  the  church  ser- 
vice was  also  altered  to  conform  to  the  change. 

The  poet  Lessing  appeared  as  one  of  the  partisans  of 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  THEOLOGY.  277 

the   movement.      Certain  literary    remains    of    Herman 

Samuel  Reimarus  having  been  put  into  his 
Lessing.  hauds  by  the  family  of  the  deceased,  he  edited 

them  under  the  title  of  The  Wolfenblittel 
Fragments.  They  contained  a  plea  for  the  toleration  of 
deists,  an  argument  against  the  supernatural,  and  an 
attack  on  the  credibility  of  the  Gospels.  Naturally  they 
created  a  sensation.  Lessing  himself  held  that  charity 
and  toleration  should  be  preferred  to  orthodoxy,  and  that 
the  pursuit  of  truth  is  better  than  its  possession.  The 
last  point  served  as  the  ground  of  the  teaching  that  all 
the  historical  religions  are  anticipations  of  the  truth  which 
comes  in  its  entirety  to  the  reason  little  by  little  as  a  result 
of  a  process. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  discussions  both  in  philosophy 
and  in  reference  to  the  political  relations  of  the  various 

forms  of  Christianity  current  in  England  about 
En'und"'^™  "' ^'^^  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there 
Samuel  Clark,  vvas  a  rcvival  of  humanitarian  views  regarding 
Sie'n^  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  This  tendency 
wTiiston.  gradually  took  more  definite  form  and  eventu- 

Priestiey.  ally  resolved  itself  into  Unitarianisiii.     Samuel 

Clark  (1675-1729)  was  one  of  the  first  to 
teach  in  his  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  a  subtle  form 
of  Arianism,  so  succinct  that  though  accused  before  Con- 
vocation, he  could  not  be  proved  guilty  of  the  heresy  and 
was  allowed  to  continue  in  the  established  Church. 
Nathaniel  Lardner  (1684-1768),  an  eminent  Presbyterian 
and  strong  defender  of  the  historical  character  of  the  mira- 
cles of  the  Gospels,  also  acknowledged  himself  a  believer 
in  the  Unitarian  view.  William  Whiston,  in  his  Friinitii'e 
Christianity  Rei'ived,  attempted  to  prove  that  the  ante- 
Nicene  theology  was  Unitarian.  Theophilus  Lindsay 
(1723-1808)  was  proved  an  Arian  and  withdrew  from  the 
Anglican  fold  and  founded  a  Unitarian  church  in  Lon- 
don. Finally  more  clearly  than  all  others,  Joseph  Priest- 
ley, an  eminent  scientist  (i 733-1804),  in  his  History  of 
the  Corruptions  of  Christianity  and  his  History  of  Early 
Opinions  about  fesns  Christ  denied  that  the  Bible  teaches 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 


278  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

In  opposition  to  these  Trinitarianism  was  defended  by 
Bishop  George  Bull  (1634-17 10)  in  a  Defence  of  the 
Nicene  Creed,  a  work  for  which  the  Roman 
Trinitarian  De-  CathoUc  Bossuet  thanked  him  in  behalf  of  the 
wTteriand.  "  Roman  communion.  Daniel  Waterland  (1683- 
1740)  also  wrote  a  reply  to  Samuel  Clark's 
Scripture  Doctrine. 

As  against  the  attacks  on  the  Christian  religion  by 
deists,  Locke,  the  philosopher,  Bentley,  the  scholar,  and 
William  Law,  writer  of  devotional  works, 
ButierfL^rd^'  appeared  as  defenders  of  the  supernatural, 
ner,  Paiey.  But  the  ablest  defense  of  supernatural  re- 
ligion was  put  forth  by  Bishop  Butler  (1692-1752)  in  his 
Analogy  of  Religion,  Natural  and  Re^raled.  In  this 
great  work  Butler  clearly  demonstrates  that  whatever  ob- 
jections hold  against  belief  in  the  supernatural  hold 
with  equal  force  against  the  truths  of  natural  religion. 
The  historical  evidences  of  Christianity  were  presented 
by  Nathaniel  Lardner,  and  by  William  Paley  (i 743-1805) 
in  his  Evidences  of  Christianity  and  Horce  Panlince. 

Besides  those  who  were  distinguished  in  the  English 

Church  for  the  defense  of  the  faith,  a  number  of  eminent 

theologians    gave    their    attention    to    quieter 

|^'^oi|^''s.and      and  more  positive  labors.      In  Biblical  study 

eoogians.  j^Qi^gj-j  Lcighton  (1612-1684)  produced  his 
valuable  Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter.  In 
ecclesiastical  history  Bishop  Burnett  (1643-17 15)  wrote 
a  History  of  the  Reformation  ;  Humphrey  Prideaux,  The 
Connections  Bettveen  the  Old  and  the  Neiv  Testaments,  and 
Bingham,  his  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church.  In 
theology  more  strictly,  John  Pearson  (1613-1686)  wrote 
an  Exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  Bishop  Bur- 
net an  Exposition  of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles.  Isaac 
Barrow  (1630-1677)  and  Robert  South  (1633-1716)  were 
eminent  and  influential  preachers,  and  Jeremy  Taylor 
(1613-1667)  wrote  devotional  works  of  permanent  value. 
Though  his  Ductor  Dubitantium,  a  treatise  on  casuistry, 
has  lost  its  interest,  his  Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying  are 
among  the  most  precious  religious  classics.  He  has  also 
been  called  "  the  Shakespeare  of  preachers." 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  THEOLOGY.  279 

The  Puritan  divines  were  voluminous  writers,  and 
wrote  in  a  prolix  style.  The  most  prominent  among  them 
are:  Richard  Baxter  (1615-1691)  whose 
Puritan  Divines.Sa/^/f's  Everhistiiig  Rest  and  Call  to  the  Uncon- 
verted have  been  extensively  used.  Baxter 
was  noted  for  moderation  and  breadth  of  view.  John  Owen 
(1616-1683)  adopted  the  Cocceian  theology,  and  ex- 
pounded it  with  clearness  against  the  claims  of  the 
Arminian  system.  John  Howe  (1630-1705),  the  author  of 
\.\-\Q.  Living  7>w//i?wasoneof  the  most  genial  of  the  Puritans. 
John  Selden  (1584-1654)  was  styled  by  Grotius  "the 
glory  of  the  English  nation."  John  Milton  (1608-1674) 
embalmed  Puritan  theology  in  the  greatest  epic  poems  in 
the  English  language,  besides  contending  stanchly  for 
independence  against  both  Episcopalians  and  Presbyte- 
rians-* Finally,  John  Bunyan  (1628-1688),  the  "Tinker 
of  Elstow,"  living  during  the  stormy  days  of  Stuart  rule, 
and  suffering  severe  persecution  for  his  views,  embodied 
the  course  of  Christian  experience  in  the  immortal  Pil- 
grifn^s  Progress,  and  in  a  number  of  minor  works. 

Midway  between  Puritans  and  Anglicans,  between 
deists  and  believers  in  the  supernatural,  stood  the  Lati- 
tudinarians.  These  were  connected  largely 
rianism.'"^'  with  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  culti- 
vated the  study  of  Plato,  whence  they  were 
also  called  the  Cambridge  Platonists.  They  appealed  to 
the  reason  without  recognising  it,  as  the  deists  did,  as  the 
sole  guide  in  religion.  They  belonged  to  the  Anglican 
Church,  but  did  not  insist  on  the  divine  right,  or  absolute 
necessity  of  episcopacy.  They  were  charged  with  lax- 
ness  in  view  and  their  breadth  or  effort  to  include  varying 
elements  earned  for  them  the  name  of  latitudinarian. 

The  chief  exponent    of  the  latitudinarian  system  was 

Ralph  Cudworth  (16 17-1688)   who,  in  a   treatise  on    The 

Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe,  advocates  a 

Tmotson.  revival  of  the  Platonic   philosophy  as  against 

atheism     and     pantheism.      John     Tillotson 

*  Milton  was  Cromwell's  Latin  secretary.     lie    was  the  author   of 
the  phrase,  "  Presbyter  is  only  priest  writ  large." 


28o  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

(1630-1694),  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  presented  latitu- 
dinarianism  in  the  pulpit,  accompanying  it  with  a  reform 
in  the  style  of  preaching.  He  aimed  to  be  direct  and 
simple,  as  well  as  practical  and  ethical.  His  theology, 
however,  is  weak  and  vague. 

Mention   must  be  made   also  of   the    English    hymn- 
writers,  who  towards  the  end  of  this  period  enriched  the 

hymnology  of  the  Christian  Church  at  large. 
Hymrv-writing.  Thcse  represent  different  types  of  theology, 
Waus/xop^-  but  agree  in  expressing  the  same  devotional 
ridge   ^""^^      feelings.       Augustus     Toplady     (1740-17 78) 

was  a  stanch  Calvinist.  John  and  Charles 
Wesley  were  Arminians.  Isaac  Watts  held  peculiar 
views  regarding  the  Trinity,  and  taught  that  the  soul  at 
death  falls  into  a  perfect  sleep,  from  which  it  wakens  only 
at  the  resurrection.  Philip  IJoddridge  (1702-1751)  held 
to  Calvinism,  but  rather  loosely. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

QUAKERS  AND  METHODISTS. 

The  spiritual  life  which  was  one  of  the  marked  features 
of  the  early  Reformation  age  ebbed  during  the  course  of 
the  post-Reformation  period.  And  this  ebb 
Splrituli°Life.  was  characteristic  not  only  of  one  locality  or 
form  of  faith,  but  of  all.  Roman  Catholics, 
Lutherans,  Anglicans,  Puritans  in  England,  Germany  and 
Holland  were  more  or  less  affected  by  the  diminution  of 
spiritual  earnestness.  Morals  degenerated,  especially  in 
high  places,  and  the  Church  and  its  institutions  were  per- 
vaded by  the  spirit  of  secularism.  Such  at  least  appears 
to  be  the  conditions  depicted  in  the  literary  productions  of 
the  age  and  in  some  of  the  art,  as,  for  instance,  that  of 
Hogarth  in  England. 

Out  of  this  condition  of  spiritual  torpor  efforts  were 
made  to  rouse  the  Church  at  different  times  and  in  dif- 
ferent places.  The  most  significant  of  these 
Friflds°^''The  ^^''^  '•'^^  preaching  of  the  "inner  light,"  by 
Inner  Light.  the  Fricnds,  and  the  great  evangelical  revival 
of  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  Society  of  Friends  owes  its  origin  to  the  efforts  of 
George  Fox  (1624-1690).  Fox  was  the  son  of  a  Presby- 
terian weaver  residing  at  Drayton.  He  had  received  a 
good  religious  training  in  his  youth,  and  was  employed  as 
a  shoemaker  when  the  conviction  came  to  him  that  the 
world  with  all  its  pursuits  and  pleasures  was  an  empty 
show.  He  became  further  convinced  that  God  visits 
every  man  with  his  renewing  and  quickening  power. 
This  work  of  the  Spirit  he  called  The  Inner  Light. 
He  began   preaching  these  views  and,  though  persecuted 

281 


282  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  imprisoned,   met  with  success  among  the    common 
people. 

The  followers  of  Fox  increased  steadily  and  rapidly. 
Others  imitated  his  example,  going  from  place  to 
place,  and  inculcating  the  doctrine  of  the  in- 
Extravagances.  ner  light.  But  the  tendency  of  the  move- 
ment was  at  first  towards  extravagant  claims 
and  unseemly  conduct.  One  of  their  number  particu- 
larly, James  Naylor,  went  to  the  extent  of  enacting  in 
public  the  second  coming  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  a 
sort  of  dramatic  representation.  For  this  he  was  seized, 
branded  with  a  "  B,"  as  a  blasphemer,  his  tongue  was 
pierced  with  red-hot  iron,  and  he  was  cast  into  prison. 

These  extravagances  were,  however,  done  away  with, 
and  the  followers  of  George  Fox,  organized  as  the  Society 
of  Friends,  disseminated  their  views  in  England,  Holland 
and  America,  insisting  only  on  the  return  to  primitive 
simplicity  of  speech,  apparel  and  manner,  on  the  equality 
of  all  members,  and,  therefore,  the  abolition  of  a  separate 
ministry,  and  the  abandonment  of  all  outward  forms  and 
ordinances  not  excepting  the  sacraments,  because  they 
claimed  none  of  these  ordinances  were  based  on  the 
word  of  God. 

The  great  Evangelical  Revival  began  with  a  group  of 
young  men  at  Oxford  University  who  were  called  the 
Oxford  Methodists,  because  they  under- 
Mllh^dists'^  took  to  cultivate  personal  piety  in  a  method- 
ical way.  They  entered  into  a  compact  with 
one  another  to  read  the  Scriptures,  engage  in  meditation, 
read  devotional  works,  such  as  Jeremy  Taylor's  Holy  Liv- 
ing, Thomas  a  Kempis'  Imitation  of  Christy  etc.,  engage 
in  prayer,  participate  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  to  do 
these  things  with  regularity  at  stated  times.  The  leader 
in  this  group  of  young  men  was  John  Wesley(i703-i79i), 
the  son  of  an  Episcopal  rector  at  Epworth.  Charles 
Wesley,  his  brother,  and  George  Whitefield  (1714-1770) 
were  also  prominent  members  of  the  group.  The  organi- 
zation formed  by  these  men  was  called  the  Holy  Club, 
and  was  made  soon  after  Wesley's  taking  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Oxford  as  fellow  in  1728. 


QUAKERS  A^fD  METHODISTS.  283 

A  few    years    later   (1735),  John    and  Charles  Wesley 
went  as  missionaries  to  Georgia.     During  the  course  of 

the  voyage  across  the  ocean  they  became 
Morawans'^ ''^^  acquainted  with  two  prominent  Moravians — 

Spangenberg  and  Nitzschmann.  From  them 
they  learned  the  peculiar  beliefs  of  the  Moravian  Breth- 
ren, especially  with  reference  to  the  internal  testimony  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  But  as  the  work  in  Georgia  did  not 
move  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  missionaries,  they  returned 
to  England  after  two  years,  and  immediately  sought  to 
learn  more  about  the  Moravian  community,  and  that  in 
a  more  direct  way.  It  was  in  one  of  the  meetings  of  the 
Moravian  community  in  London  that  John  Wesley  heard 
the  exposition  of  Luther's  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  and  was  at  once  enlightened  and  assured  of 
personal  salvation. 

In    order    to    deepen     his     knowledge    of    truth    thus 
acquired,  Wesley  next  made  a  visit  to  the  headquarters 

of  Moravianism, — Herrnhut.  But  he  had 
tlH'emihut''    evidently  reached  as  far   as  possible  in    this 

direction,  for  the  visit  did  not  prove  as  satis- 
factory as  anticipated,  and  he  returned  to  England  to  take 
up  what  was  now  to  prove  his  life-work.  He  began  to 
preach  in  London  in  1738, 

Whitefield's  experience  was  more  subjective  and  inde- 
pendent of  external  influence.     He  struggled   for   some 

time  in  his  own  strength,  to  lead  a  better  life, 
whitefieid.        and  finally  threw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  God, 

thus  finding  peace  of  mind  and  assurance  of 
salvation.  He  then  began  to  preach  in  the  opens  field  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Bristol.  Wesley  would  not  at  first 
conduct  religious  services  outside  the  walls  of  churches. 
But  his  growing  audiences  on  the  one  side,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  difficulty  of  securing  churches  from  the  reg- 
ular clergy,  whose  prejudices  and  suspicions  were  being 
awakened  by  his  style  of  preaching,  compelled  him  to  fol- 
low ^^'hitefield  by  holding  meetings  in  the  open  air. 

The  style  of  preaching  of  both  these  evangelists  was 
direct  and  forcible.     They  represented  God's  grace  as 


284  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

sufficient,  upon  the  exercise  of  faith  to  save 
Preaching  of      jj^g  sinner  immediately.     They  pressed  their 

the  Evangehsts.  ■'    .  ,-'.    '  ... 

hearers  to  make  an  mimediate  decision. 
Their  message  came  to  the  multitudes  like  a  new  revela- 
tion. They  were  heard  with  eagerness  and  the  result  of 
their  labors  was  the  conversion  of  many  thousands.  For 
a  time  they  kept  together.  But  their  doctrinal  differ- 
ences proved  irreconcilable.  Whitefield  was  a  believer  in 
the  Calvinistic  system,  while  Wesley  was  an  Arminian 
and  a  violent  opponent  of  Calvinism.  They  were  obliged 
to  part  company  and  carry  on  theii'  work  separately. 

Wesley  found  it  necessary  also  to  close  all  negotiations 
for  a  union  with  the  Moravians,  although  for  a  time  such 
a  union  was  thought  feasible.  Tempera- 
Wesley's  Work,  mental  and  national  differences  in  this  case 
put  positive  bars  to  the  amalgamation  pro- 
posed. Thus  about  1740  Wesley  began  his  own  work 
and  pressed  it  with  an  organizing  talent  whose  effec- 
tiveness was  soon  made  manifest. 

Wesley's  aim  was  to  reach  the  whole  of  the  realm  and 
even  the  world  ("  The  world  is  my  field  ").  To  this  end 
he  organized  his  followers  into  a  great  association.  This 
he  subdivided  into  societies.  The  societies  were  again 
subdivided  into  classes  under  leaders  and  held  meetings 
for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  one  another  to  spiritual 
life.  He  divided  the  country  into  circuits  and  assigned 
these  to  preachers  who  should  visit  them  and  hold 
services  in  them.  The  year  was  also  methodically 
divided  into  parts  and  some  form  of  religious  service  was 
appointed  to  each  part.  Thus  were  instituted  a  series 
of  daily  devotional  services,  weekly  class-meetings, 
monthly  watch  nights,  quarterly  fasts  and  love  feasts, 
and  annual  consecration  and  covenant  meetings.  For 
use  in  these  services  Charles  Wesley  composed  hymns 
of  genuine  liturgical  merit. 

It  was   not  the   intention   of   the  Wesleys  to  break  off 

from  the  national  Church.     They  protested   to  the  end 

that  their  purpose  was  not  to  found  a  separate 

Sty  becomes  church  but  a  society  within  it.     But  the   logic 

a  Church.  ^f  jj^gj^   conduct  led    to    the  rupture.     John 


QUAKERS  AND  METHODISTS.  285 

Wesley  came  to  the  conclusion  that  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  offices  of  bishop  and  presbyter  were  identical, 
and  thus  though  only  a  presbyter  himself,  undertook, 
contrary  to  the  canons  of  the  Ciiurch  to  which  he  be- 
longed, to  ordain  presbyters  and  even  a  bishop  for 
the  church  in  America.  This  could  issue  only  in  the 
separation  of  the  Methodist  society  and  its  organization 
into  a  church,  an  event  which  was,  however,  brought 
to  a  consummation  after  the  death  of  John  Wesley 
in   1 791. 

The  revival  led  by  Whitefield  continued  as  a  movement 
within    the    English    Church.      Whitefield    enlisted    the 

friendship  and  support  of  the  influential 
Waies**^^^'"      Countess  of  Huntingdon.     His  labors  proved 

especially  successful  in  Wales.  Here  the 
lady  Huntingdon  erected  a  large  number  of  chapels  in 
which  the  jNIethodists  could  hold  their  meetings.  She 
also  established  a  seminary  for  the  education  of  ministers, 
at  Trevecca  (1768).  This  institution  was  put  under  the 
supervision  of  John  William  Fletcher  (1729-1785),  a  man 
of  amiable  disposition  and  sterling  Christian  character. 
But  the  doctrinal  differences  between  Wesley  and  White- 
field  led  to  his  parting  from  the  latter  and  joining 
himself  to  the  former.  He  declared  himself  an  Arminian 
in  belief,  and  lady  Huntingdon  refused  to  maintain  him 
as  the  head  of  the  school  at  Trevecca. 

Whitefield  also  engaged  in  labors  in  America  where  his 
preaching  attracted  vast  crowds  and  won  the  admiration, 

if  not  always  the  assent,  of  prominent  men. 
In  America,      many   of  whom  were    at  this  period    avowed 

deists.  On  both  sides  of  the  ocean  his 
eloquence  was  recognized  by  such  men  as  Chesterfield, 
Bolingbroke,  Hume,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  was  a 
greater  orator  than  Wesley,  though  far  inferior  as  an 
organizer.  The  great  majority  of  his  converts  were  ab- 
sorbed by  the  English  Church,  forming  the  nucleus  of  the 
evangelical  or  low-church  party  in  it ;  a  large  number, 
however,  joined  the  dissenting  evangelical  bodies.  lu 
Wales  the  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  remained  a  per- 
manent result  of  his  labors. 


286  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  effect  of  the  preaching  of  both  Wesley  and 
Whitefield  was  the  rise  within  the  Anglican  Church  of  an 

evangelical  party  destined  to  exert  a  mighty 
Results.  influence     later.      Calvinistic     theology    also 

received  a  new  statement  and  defense  as 
against  the  attacks  of  Wesley  and  Arminianism  at  the 
hands  of  William  Romaine  (1715-1795)-  John  Newton 
and  William  Cowper  expressed  the  new  devotional  spirit 
in  hymns.  Henry  Venn  engaged  in  preaching  in  asso- 
ciation with  Whitefield  and  the  lady  Huntingdon  ;  and 
finally  Thomas  Scott  (1747-1821)  and  Adam  Clarke 
(1762-1832)  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   NEW    CONDITIONS   IN   THE   NINETEENTH 

CENTURY. 

In  order  to  understand   the  history  of  Christianity  in 

the  contemporaneous  era  it  is  necessary  to  cast  at  least  a 

cursory   glance   at   the   new  conditions  under 

Philosophy  and  which     the    Christian    religion    exists.       The 

Pohtics  potent  ....  .  ,         °.     ...        , 

Factors.  political   Situation   in  the    civilized    world    is 

totally  different  from  that  of  any  other  age 
that  the  world  has  witnessed.  On  the  other  hand,  phi- 
losophy, which  in  the  middle  ages  was  only  a  part  of 
religious  thought  and  learning,  and  which  in  the  Reforma- 
tion age  and  the  post-Reformation  period  was  allied  to 
theology,  and  worked  as  an  avowed  friend  and  auxiliary, 
assumes  an  independent  attitude  with  the  end  of  the 
pre-Kantian  cycle  and  develops  in  a  new  line,  sometimes 
directly  atagonlstic  to  Christian  thought.  It  is  essential, 
therefore,  that  the  new  political  condition  and  the  new 
philosophic  movement  should  be  clearly  understood  in 
order  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  movements  within 
Christendom. 

The  political  situation  is  the  result  for  the  most  part, 

if  not  altogether,  of  the   French   Revolution,  from  which 

event  the   contemporaneous   period   dates  its 

FrenchRevolu-  beginning.       The    revolution    was,   no  doubt, 

tion  ■     Its  .  . 

Causes.  the  inevitable  result  of  the  abuse  of  power  cen- 

tralized in  royalty  during  two  extraordinarily 
long  reigns,  extending  together  from  1653  to  1774.  The 
classes  which  during  this  long  period  had  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  possession  of  the  power  felt  secure  in  its  pos- 
session, and  lost  all  scruples  as  to  its  improper  use.     They 

287 


288  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

indulged  in  extravagances,  and  resorted  to  taxation  to 
procure  tlie  means  of  paying  for  tiiem.  A  vast  debt  was 
accumulated,  the  people  were  impoverished,  monopolies 
of  the  most  offensive  kind  were  established  in  order  to 
extort  the  money  which  no  other  means  was  sufficient  to 
secure,  and  thus  a  condition  of  discontent  w-as  created 
which  the  ruling  classes  neither  would  nor  could  realize 
or  allay. 

In  the  natural  antipathy  created  by  this  condition  of 
things  between  the  ruling  class  and  the  masses,  the 
Church  and  clergy  were  ranged  on  the  side  of  the 
aristocrats.  Their  privileges,  therefore,  became  objects 
of  attack,  like  the  prerogatives  of  all  the  privileged 
classes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  king  (Louis  XVI.)  in 
all  his  efforts  to  avoid  the  revolution  was  unwilling  to 
make  any  concessions  involving  the  Church  and  its  privi- 
leges. In  any  other  direction  he  seemed  inclined  to  meet 
the  popular  demand,  but  not  in  curtailing  the  prerogatives 
of  the  clergy.  Thus  the  religious  question  entered  into 
the  conflict,  and  the  status  of  Christianity  must  be 
aft'ected  by  the  result,  whatever  this  might  be. 

The  revolution  broke  out  in  1789.  It  began  with  the 
organization    of     the    Third     Estate    as    the    National 

Assembly.  This  w\as  an  act  of  defiance  to 
Outbreak.  existing  authorities.      It  proved   to  be,   also, 

the  first  step  in  a  process  of  disorganization 
which  went  on  for  four  years,  reaching  its  culmination  in 
the  execution  of  the  king  and  the  inauguration  of  the 
Reign  of  Terror  (i  793-1 794).  The  revolutionists  reached 
their  extreme  positions.  In  Paris  a  new  era  was  pro- 
claimed. Religion  and  all  its  institutions  were  abolished. 
Atheism  was  publicly  proclaimed  to  be  the  truth.  The 
goddess  of  reason  was  formally  enthroned  in  the 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in  the  person  of  a  dissolute 
woman.  Priests  and  bishops  were  coerced  to  abjure 
their  faith  at  the  peril  of  their  lives,  and  to  declare  them- 
selves atheists.  The  division  of  time  into  w-eeks  wai 
displaced  by  a  division  into  periods  of  ten  days.  Every 
other  vestige  of  the  former  dispensation  was  wiped 
out. 


NEW  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  I9TH  CENTURY.  289 

But  this  condition  of  affairs  could  not,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  continue  very  long.  The  crisis  came  soon.  The 
leaders  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  fell  to  suspecting  one 
another.  The  people  lost  all  fear  of  death  when  blood- 
shed and  horror  became  the  rule.  The  Reign  of  Terror 
was  ended  by  the  triumph  of  the  moderate  republican 
party.  At  this  juncture  there  appeared  on  the  scene  the 
genius  who  was  to  lead  France  out  of  this  chaos  into  a 
brief  period  of  military  glory  and  prestige.  This  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  Slowly,  and  step  by  step, 
Napoleon  gained  complete  control  of  the  government. 
First  the  directorate  (1794-1799),  then  the  consulate 
(i 799-1804),  furnished  him  with  the  steps  whereby  he 
climbed  to  the  height  of  power  and  was  finally  crowned 
emperor  (1804). 

Even  before  his  accession  to  the  empire.  Napoleon  had 
shown    his  disposition   to  restore    the   Roman    Catholic 

Church  in  France,  as  one  of  several 
Bonaparte.        forccs  tending  to  preserve   order    and    bring 

about  reorganization.  The  Concordat  of  1801 
had  reinstated  the  Church  into  the  possession  and 
enjoyment  of  most  of  the  prerogatives  conceded  to  it 
before  the  revolution.  This  was  a  measure  of  statecraft, 
and  not  the  result  of  a  personal  conviction  with  Napoleon. 
When,  as  emperor,  he  tried  to  force  the  "  Continental  sys- 
tem "  on  Europe,  whereby  he  hoped  to  exclude  England 
from  all  commercial  relations  with  the  rest  of  Europe, 
Pope  Pius  VII.  refused  to  enter  into  the  plan.  Napo- 
leon, therefore,  seized  the  papal  estates  and  annexed  them 
to  the  empire.  The  pope  retaliated  with  the  old  weapon 
of  excommunication,  for  which  he  was  seized  and 
imprisoned  at  Savona.  But  Napoleon  was  not  destined 
to  hold  Europe  under  control.  When  he  was  finally 
displaced  an  effort  was  made  to  swing  Europe  back  to 
the  course  from  which  it  had  been  forced  by  Napoleon. 
But,  though  it  did  return  to  a  more  peaceful  and 
normal  condition,  it  could  not  again  become  what  it  had 
been. 

The  effect  of   the  revolution   has   been   most  clearly 
visible  in  the  history  of  France  since  the  fall  of  Napoleon. 
19 


290 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


The  attempt  to  reestablish  the  absolutism  which  pre- 
ceded Louis  XVI.  was  doomed  to  failure 
Restoration  of  from  the  beginning.  Louis  XVIIL  (1815 
inFrance.^"^  -1824)  and  Charles  X.  (1824-1830)  tried 
to  rule  by  right  divine,  but  in  the  Rev- 
olution of  1830  the  last  hope  of  the  success  of  this 
system  vanished.  Neither  was  the  attempt  to  plant  a 
popular  monarchy  made  by  Louis  Philippe  to  issue  in  a 
permanent  result.  Louis  Philippe,  after  eighteen  years 
of  mild  rule  (i 830-1848),  even  though  enjoying  the  con- 
fidence and  acting  upon  the  advice  of  able  ministers,  like 
Guizot,  was  unable  to  continue  longer.  The  second 
republic  (1848-185 2)  and  second  empire  under  Napoleon 
in.  (1852-1870)  followed,  and  in  the  third  republic,  since 
1870,  the  net  result  of  the  Revolution  of  1789  seems  to 
have  been  realized. 

The  rest  of  Europe,  however,  has  also  been  altered  by 
the  influence  of  the  great  popular  movement  in  France. 
A  few  months  after  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
Changes  in  the    which   uudertoolc   to   readjust    the  affairs    of 
Europe.  Europc  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  (18 15),  the 

Holy  Alliance  was  formed,  consisting  of 
Prussia,  Russia,  and  Austria.  Its  aim  was  to  treat  all 
parties  on  the  basis  of  Christian  justice  and  charity. 
This  alliance  was  later  enlarged  so  as  to  include  all  the 
states  of  Europe,  except  Turkey  and  the  papal  states. 
England,  however,  refused  to  enter  into  it,  and  the  result 
proved  that  the  alliance  was  capable  of  abuse.  The 
three  sovereigns  who  originated  the  idea  were  men  of  a 
religious  turn  of  mind,  and  believers  in  the  divine  right 
of  kings ;  they  interpreted  the  object  of  the  alliance 
favorably  to  the  promotion  of  this  idea.  The  alliance 
thus  turned  out  to  be  a  slight  reaction  from  the  direction 
towards  which  the  French  Revolution  had  turned 
European  politics.  Nevertheless,  as  a  reaction  it  was 
checked  by  popular  uprisings  in  different  places,  and  the 
trend  of  affairs  has  neutralized  its  tendency  towards 
absolutism. 

Nowhere,  perhaps,  has  the   progress   of  popular   ideas 
been  more  marked  and  steady,  and  yet  peaceful,  than  in 


NEW  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY.  291 

Great  Britain.     The   Catholic  Emancipation  law  was  car- 
ried through  in   1829,  after  severe  struggles 
ISd.'"  The  Reform     Bill,  abolishing  "  pocket  bor- 

oughs "  (precincts  represented  in  Parliament, 
but  having  no  population),  was  passed  in  1832.  Slavery 
was  abolished  in  the  West  Indies  in  1833.  The  Poor 
Laws  were  enacted  in  1834.  The  Municipal  Corporation 
Law  bestowed  the  right  of  self-government  upon  cities  of  a 
certain  class,  in  1835.  The  Civil  Marriage  Law  in  1836 
was  in  the  direction  of  leveling  religious  differences. 
Since  the  accession  of  Victoria  in  1837,  the  course  of 
progressive  legislation  for  the  benefit  of  the  common 
people  has  been  even  more  rapid.  Penny-postage  was 
established  in  1840.  Jews  were  admitted  to  Parliament 
in  1858.  The  electoral  system  was  again  reformed  in 
1867,  enfranchising  more  than  a  million  of  householders. 
The  Irish  Church  was  disestablished  in  1869.  The  same 
year  membership  in  the  governing  bodies  of  grammar 
schools  was  made  open  to  all  denominations.  The  uni- 
versities of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Durham  were 
opened  to  all,  without  the  necessity  of  subscribing  to  any 
creed.  The  parochial  churchyards  were  made  accessible 
to  dissenters  in  1880,  and  finally  the  headships  and 
fellowships  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities  were 
freed  from  clerical  restrictions  in  1882. 

But  if  the  political  movement  has  been  so  radical 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  the  philosophical  move- 
ment has  also  been  very  remarkable.  With 
untii°Hegei.  Kant  as  a  starting-point  this  movement  seeks 
for  truth  in  a  new  direction.  The  first  to 
build  on  Kant  was  Johann  Gottlieb  Fichte  (1762-1814). 
In  imitation  of  Kant  he  constructed  a  Critique  of  all 
Revelation.  But  his  interpretation  was  questioned  by 
Kant's  other  disciples  and  disowned  by  Kant  himself. 
Nevertheless  he  built  his  system  as  pure  science,  taking 
the  ground  that  only  the  Ego  could  be  known  scientif- 
ically. His  philosophy  is  thus  of  the  same  type  though 
not  identical  with  Berkeley's.  J.  F.  Herbart  (1776-1841) 
followed  also  on  the  basis  of  Kant,  but  with  an  entirely 
different  result.     He  held  that  experience   must   serve  as 


2^2  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  beginning-  of  philosophy  ;  that  doubt  must  be  a  nec- 
essary stage, "but  must  issue  in  the  refashioning  of  the 
data  of  experience  into  a  system  of  the  universe.  On  this 
basis  he  propounded  the  doctrine  of  "  Reals  "  as  the  con- 
stituents of  the  world.  ScheUing  (1775-1854)  probably 
builds  on  Fichte's  doctrine  of  the  Ego  when  he  makes 
this  the  coming  into  consciousness  of  the 
Fichte.  World-soul,    and    then    constructs    a    system 

s!:hemng.  accordiug  to   which   the   universe   is  a  living 

being  whose  spiritual  nature  manifests  itself 
in  the  phenomena  of  intellect,  and  whose  material  side  is 
shown  in  the  physical  world. 

The  most  potent  stream  of  influence  going  forth  from 
philosophy   over   religious    thought   is    that   which    was 
exercised    by  Hegel    (1770-1831).       Hegel's 
Hegel.  is  the    most   consistent    system    of   idealism. 

The  essence  of  the  universe  is  thought. 
This  externalizes  itself  and  evolves  in  the  world  of 
nature.  Through  this  world  it  comes  to  selfconscious- 
ness  in  the  world  of  mind.  The  system  was  taught  and 
embraced  by  many  theologians  as  the  most  rational  ex- 
planation of  Christianity.  Hegel's  followers,  however, 
divided  into  two  sections.  The  section  that  attempted 
to  adhere  to  a  Christian  theistic  belief  was  designated 
the  Hegelian  Right  wing,  and  the  section  which  carried 
out  Hegelianism  to  a  strict  pantheistic  extreme  was  called 
the  Hegelian  Left. 

Meanwhile,  other  forms  of  philosophizing  also  found 
favor.     Arthur  Schopenhauer  (1788-1860)  taught  that  the 
world    is    the  manifestation   of   blind  unintel- 
Schopenhauer.   ligent  will,  and   therefore  as  bad  as   possible. 
Sprier.  Auguste  Comtc  (1798-1857)  claimed  that  the 

effort  to  know  anything  beside  mere  appear- 
ances is  vain.  All  such  ideas  of  the  inner  relations  of 
things,  as  well  as  belief  in  spiritual  realities,  he  discarded 
in  his  Positivism  as  antiquated  theology  and  metaphys- 
ics. But  he  also  tried  to  satisfy  the  religious  nature  by 
establishing  the  worship  of  humanity,  with  a  ritual 
patterned  after  the  Roman  Catholic. 

Herbert  Spencer    (1S20 )   separates    between    the 


NEW  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY.  293 

knowable  and  the  unknowable,  then  relegating  the  latter 
to  a  department  by  itself  in  which  investigation  is  futile, 
he  limits  himself  to  building  a  theory  as  to  the  origin  and 
inward  life  of  the  knowable.  This  he  finds  in  the  doctrine 
of  evolution.  From  its  doctrine  of  the  unknowable  this 
philosophy  has  been  called  Agnosticism,  and  from  its 
view  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  world,  Evolutionism. 
But  while  these  systems  have  been  propounded,  regard- 
less of  the  facts  of  the  religious  consciousness,  and  have 

issued  in  antagonism  with  Christian  thought, 
fo'sophy. ^'^^       other  systems  have  also  been  taught  all  along 

in  harmony  with  the  Christian  faith.  Such 
is  the  so-called  Scottish  philosophy  first  elaborated  by 
Thomas  Reid  (17 10-1796),  and  subsequently  supported 
and  entrenched  by  Thomas  Brown  (1778-1820),  Dugald 
Stewart  (1753-1828),  Sir  William  Hamilton  (1788-18^56), 
and  James  ]\IcCosh  (1811-1894).  This  system  is  based 
on  the  "common  sense,"  that  is,  the  intuitive  knowledge 
that  all  unbiased  minds  agree  in  holding.  The  ideas  of 
power,  substance,  cause,  time,  space,  are  innate  and  cor- 
respond with  realities  outside  of  men.  The  senses  are 
trustworthy.  The  world  perceived  by  them  has  a  reality. 
There  are  two  spheres,  that  of  matter  and  that  of  mind. 
Haaiilton,  however,  taught  that  knowledge  is  relative,  and 
led  Alansell  ( 1820-187 1)  to  deny  the  philosophic  validity 
either  of  dogmatic  theology  or  of  rationalism. 

In  Germany,  Jacobi  (1753-1819)  was  repelled  by  the 
destructive    elements    of    Kant's    philosophy.     Against 

Kant's  negations  he  asserted  that  God,  im- 
jacobi.    Lotze.  mortality,  and  freedom  are  known  by  a  direct 

intuition  which  he  called  faith.  Herman 
Lotze  (1817-1881)  put  forth  a  spiritualistic  realism  op- 
posed to  Hegelian  idealism  on  one  side,  and  materialistic 
realism  on  the  other.  The  world  is,  according  to  him,  the 
expression  of  moral  ends,  and  these  ends  are  the  expres- 
sion of  the  nature  of  a  Supreme  Person — God. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  ROMAN   CATHOLIC  CHURCH   IN  THE  NINE- 
TEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  French  Revolution  began  during  the  pontificate  of 
Pius    VI.    (1775-1799).     The    rupture    between    France, 

under  the  Revolution,  and  the  papacy,  made 
Pius  VII.  during    this    pontificate,    was    healed    by    the 

Concordat  of  1801,  agreed  to  by  Napoleon  and 
Pius  VII.  (1800-1823).  But  these  two  quarreled  and  the 
pope  was  cast  into  prison,  whence  he  was  delivered  only 
at  the  fall  of  the  emperor.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  as  if 
making  a  thank-offering  for  restoration  to  the  Holy  See 
of  the  estates  which  had  been  confiscated  by  Napoleon, 
Pius  issued  the  bull  Solicitudo  omnitwi,  by  which  he  reha- 
bilitated the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  in  response,  as  he  claimed, 
to  the  desire  of  all  the  faithful.  This  measure  was  fol- 
lowed two  years  later  by  the  condemnation  of  Bible 
societies  and  of  translations  of  the  Bible  for  the  use  of 
the  people.  Thus  from  the  outset  the  policy  of  the  Church 
was  bent  in  the  reactionary  direction. 

Leo    XII.    (1823-1829)    reasserted    his    predecessor's 
condemnation  of  Bible  societies.     Pius  VIII.  (1829-1830) 

did  not  hold  the  papacy  long  enough  to  do 
Gregory  XVI.   much ,  but  his  succcssor,  Gregory  XVI.  (1830- 

1846),  not  only  continued  in  the  reactionary 
course  inaugurated  by  Pius  VII.,  but  went  further  in  the 
effort  to  revive  the  ideas  of  Hildebrand  and  Innocent  III. 
He  opposed  science  and  all  liberal  views,  and  strove  to 
establish  the  supremacy  of  the  hierarchy,  using  to  this 
end  even  violence.  At  his  death  he  left  more  than  two 
thousand  persons  condemned  and  lodged  in  imprisonment 
for  opposing  his  will. 
294 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY-    295 

Pius  IX.  (1846-1878)  began  by  treating  with  great 
leniency  those  whom  his  predecessor  had  sentenced  to 
punishment.  In  fact  his  early  years  were 
Pius  IX.  signalized     by     a  policy     of    tolerance.     He 

seemed  to  have  abandoned  the  repressive 
course  of  previous  pontiffs,  and  to  be  aspiring  for  the 
establishment  of  a  confederacy  of  Italian  states  under  the 
presidency  of  the  pope.  But  the  disturbances  of  1848 
made  him  aware  that  such  a  plan  was  a  pure  vision  which 
could  never  be  realized.  He  fell  back  into  the  path 
opened  by  Pius  VII.,  and  wielded  his  authority  with  in- 
creasing rigor.  In  1854  he  pronounced  ex  cathedra  in 
favor  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
thus  closing  a  question  which  had  been  discussed  ever 
since  the  days  of  Aquinas  and  Scotus.  Ten  years  later 
he  issued  an  encyclical  letter  with  a  syllabus  of  errors 
appended.  This  document  enumerated  among  others,  as 
errors  condemned  by  the  Church,  such  matters  as  civil 
marriage,  secular  education,  toleration  of  heterodox 
beliefs,  and  freedom  of  conscience. 

This  policy  culminated  in  the  calling  of  the  Vatican  coun- 
cil, the  twentieth  ecumenical,  in  1870.  The  real  object  of 
this  council,  though  denied  at  the  time,  was 
Vatican  Council.  (-[-)£  formulation  of  the  doctrine  of  papal  in- 
Fn'ffiTibiHty.  fallibility.  The  council  was  largely  attended, 
but  the  preponderant  influence  was  that  of  the 
Italian  branch  of  the  Church,  closely  allied  with  the  pope. 
The  business  was  arranged  by  the  pope's  friends  in 
accordance  with  his  wishes.  Three  rubrics  {se/iemata) 
were  proposed  under  the  captions  respectively  of  The 
Faith,  The  Church,  and  Missions.  The  first  rubric  or 
scherna  entitled  The  Faith  gave  an  account  of  and 
denounced  prevalent  forms  of  error,  such  as  atheism, 
materialism,  etc.  This  was  adopted  unanimously.  The 
second  consisted  of  three  articles,  (i)  A  definition  of  the 
le-^al  status  of  the  Church  with  relation  to  the  State. 
(2)  The  reassertion  of  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  over  the 
whole  Church.  (3)  A  catechism  to  be  used  in  the  in- 
struction of  the  young.  To  these  was  added,  ostensibly 
at  the  request  of  400  members  of  the  council,  but  in  reality 


296  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

by  prearrangement  at  the  desire  of  the  pope,  (4)  the  af- 
firmation that  the  pope  is  infallible  in  every  utterance  on 
a  point  of  faith  duly  submitted  to  his  judgment.  This 
article  evoked  strong  opposition  on  the  part  of  learned 
and  liberal  men  like  Bishop  Hefele,  Archbishops  Dupan- 
loup,  of  Orleans,  and  Kenrick,  of  the  United  States.  But 
it  was  passed  at  first  by  a  large  majority,  and  on  a  second 
vote  with  but  two  dissenting  voices  out  of  550.  Before 
the  council  could  enter  upon  other  business  of  importance 
the  war  between  France  and  Germany  broke  out  and  the 
council  dissolved. 

While    the    Catholic    clergy,    both    higher   and    lower, 
acquiesced  in  the  dogma  of  the  Vatican  council,  a  few 

theologians  recorded  their  protest  against  it. 
MovS.em'.'''      These  held  a  conference  at  Nuremberg  in  the 

summer  of  1870,  and  declared  that  the  Vatican 
council  was  not  truly  ecumenical  and  its  dogma,  therefore, 
was  not  binding.  The  most  eminent  of  these  theologians 
was  Ignatius  Doellinger,  of  Munich.  Having  refused  to 
subscribe  to  the  decree  of  the  council,  he  was  excommu- 
nicated. Under  his  leadership  the  Catholics  who  could 
not  accept  the  new  dogma  held  a  second  conference  in 
Munich,  and  organized  the  Old  Catholic  Church.  The 
Old  Catholics  claimed  that  they  were  the  true  adherents 
of  the  historic  faith,  while  those  who  accepted  the  dogma 
of  the  Vatican  had  departed  from  true  Catholicism.  They 
recognized  the  Appellants  of  Holland  (Jansenists),  and 
proposed  amalgamation  with  the  Greek  and  some  of  the 
Protestant  churches.  At  a  third  conference,  held  in 
1872,  they  went  further  from  Romanism  in  abolishing  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy  and  in  making  it  optional  with  the 
priest  administering  the  Lord's  Supper  whether  he  shall 
offer  the  cup  to  the  laity  or  not.  The  Old  Catholic  move- 
ment did  not,  however,  gather  much  strength,  as  it  lacked 
fervor  and  popular  features  to  commend  it  to  the  masses. 
In  France  the  movement  found  a  representative  in  Pere 
Hyacinthe.  a  Carmelite  monk  (Charles  Loyson),  who  has 
been  laboring  against  great  difficulties  since  1878  in  build- 
ing up  a  national  Galilean  Catholic  Church  independent 
of  the  pope. 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY.     297 

When  Napoleon  III.  was  dethroned  after  the  defeat  of 
France   in    1870,  the  troops  maintained  by  him  at  Rome 

in  support  of  the  pope  as  a  temporal  sovereign 
The  Pope,  Leo  were  withdrawn,  and  Victor  Emmanuel  II. 
Prisonerafthe  "^arched  into  Rome  and  took  possession  of 
Vatican.  the  city,  making  it  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 

of  Italy.  From  the  date  of  this  event  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  Pius  IX.  assumed  the  roll  of  a  prisoner 
and  refused  to  leave  the  Vatican.  His  successor,  Leo 
XIII.  (1878-  ),  took  up  the  papal  policy  left  by  Pius, 
though  he  has  intimated  to  the  Italian  government  that  he 
would  prefer  to  live  on  a  peaceful  understanding  with  the 
royal  government,  but  must  have  some  concession  of  tem- 
poral authority  made  to  him. 

During   the  last   half  century   two  opposite  tendencies 
have  developed  in   the   Roman   Catholic  Church.     The 

first  of  these  is  a  tendency  towards  supersti- 
Diverging         tion,  credulity,  and  slavish   obedience   to  the 

tendencies  in        -,r      •  i  i  i  i  i-       i 

Romanism.  Vatican  ;  the  other  a  tendency  towards  radical- 
ism, socialism,  and  rationalism.  The  first 
finds  expression  in  easy  belief  in  miraculous  phenomena, 
such  as  those  produced  by  Hohenloe  and  Sabina  Schaefer, 
or  at  Lourdes  and  Marpingen  ;  the  second  is  to  be  dis- 
cerned in  the  revolutionary  teachings  of  Martin  Boos  in 
the  diocese  of  Augsburg,  of  Theiner  at  Breslau,  and  of 
Lamennais  at  Paris. 

The  disposition  to  yield  to  the  claims  of  Rome  and 
obey  the  pope  rather  than  the  government  has  been  called 
Ultramontanism.  It  has  manifested  itself  in 
Kuitur-Kampf.  France,  and  especially  in  Germany,  where  it 
has  led  to  the  famous  Kultur-Kampf.  This 
was  a  conflict  between  the  papacy  and  the  German  im- 
perial government.  It  was  caused  by  the  entrance  into 
the  new  German  empire  of  the  Catholic  German  States  of 
the  old  Confederacy.  The  occasion  of  the  outbreak  of 
the  conflict  was  the  appropriation  of  money  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Old  Catholics  by  the  government.  As  the  Old 
Catholics  had  gone  out  of  the  Roman  communion,  in 
making  an  appropriation  for  them,  it  was  necessary  to  cut 
down  the  appropriation  made  for  the  Roman  Catholics. 
This  was  called  an  act  of  persecution,  and  resented. 


298  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

In  another  locality  the  question  of  education  proved  to 
be  the  bone  of  contention.  Ledochowski,  the  primate  of 
Poland,  tried  to  exclude  the  German  language 
^'^ec°ioi"  from  the  schools  of  his  diocese  in  Prussia. 
This  led  to  the  passing  of  the  imperial  School 
Inspection  law  of  1872,  by  which  the  control  of  schools 
was  transferred  from  the  Church  to  the  State.  The 
bishops  protested  against  this  measure  as  persecution, 
and  denounced  it  as  dechristianizing  education. 

Still   another   question,  arising  out  of  the  two  preced- 
ing, was  the  status  of  the  Jesuits.     It  was  found  that  the 
members  of  this  order  were  active  in  foment- 
jesuits.  ing  opposition  to  the  legislation  of  the  empire. 

Two  laws  were  passed  directed  against  them. 
The  first  forbade  the  use  of  the  pulpit  for  political  pur- 
poses on  penalty  of  imprisonment  for  two  years.  The 
second  suppressed  the  order  of  Jesuits,  closed  their 
schools,  and  provided  against  their  reappearance  under 
another  name. 

Finally,  the  May  Laws  (1873-1874)  furnished  an- 
other subject  of  dispute.  These  laws  required  citizen- 
ship in  Germany,  as  a  qualitication  for  hold- 
May  Laws,  ing  ecclesiastical  office.  In  addition  they 
required  an  educational  qualification  of  the 
equivalent  of  a  three-years'  course  in  some  German  uni- 
versity, with  due  preparation  preceding.  And  further 
they  prescribed  close  supervision  by  the  government 
of  all  ecclesiastical  offices  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
were  filled.  They  called  forth  an  encyclical  letter  from 
Pius  IX.  {Qnod  nimquam)  alleging  that  they  were  tyran- 
nical and  that  no  one  was  under  obligation  to  obey 
them. 

At  this  stage  the  controversy  remained  to  the  death  of 
Pius  and  for   some   time   after.     But  political  conditions 
compelled   the   German  government   to    com- 
Reconciiiatioa   promise  the  matter  with  Leo  XIII.  and  a  rec- 
onciliation was  effected  in  1887. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROTESTANTISM   IN    THE     NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Soon   after  the  confusion   created  in  Europe  by  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  doings  of  Napoleon  was  set- 
tled, the  Lutherans  and  Reformed  of  Germany 
farmed  and  ^''  ""ited  in  ouc  State  Church.     Prussia  led  the 
Lutheran  movement  for  union.      King  Frederick  Wil- 

Cnurch  in  ,  •  ,  ,  t  i  ,  i 

Germany.  iiam    111.,   a  dcvout  and    earnest    man,    sug- 

gested the  plan  on  the  occasion  of  the  300th 
anniversary  of  the  Reformation  in  1817,  and  it  was 
successfully  carried  out  within  his  domains  in  1829.  A 
small  fraction  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  however,  refused 
to  enter  the  reunited  state  Church,  and  remained  inde- 
pendent. From  this  smaller  body  the  Immanuel  Synod 
later  seceded,  on  the  ground  of  Romanizing  tendencies 
in  it,  and  thus  eventually  there  came  to  exist  three  Prot- 
estant churches  instead  of  two  in  Germany. 

In    France   an   Appendix    to    the  Concordat    of  1801 

guaranteed  freedom  to  Protestants  and  equality  with  the 

Roman  Catholics.     When  the  Bourbons  were 

Reformed         rcstorcd  in  181 1;  the  Catholics  in  the  south  of 

Church  in  ,  i  i  • 

France.  the  Country  undertook  a  series  of  persecutions 

against  the  Reformed,  which,  however,  the 
government  was  constrained  by  popular  opinion  to 
prevent.  A  theological  school  for  Calvinists  at  Montau- 
ban  and  one  for  Lutherans  at  Strasburg  were  established, 
and  since  1830  further  legislation  has  confirmed  and  en- 
larged the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Reformed  as  a  free 
Church. 

In  Italy  the  Waldensian  Church,  surviving  the  troubles 
and  changes  of  three  hundred  years,  came  to  the  front 

299 


300  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

with  the  agitations  of  1848,  and  secured 
inltafy.^'^"^  formal  recognition  and  civil  rights.  But  as 
the  language  used  by  the  Waldensians  of 
Piedmont  was  French,  the  Waldensians  of  Italy  separated 
into  the  Free  Church  of  Italy  in  1854,  aiming  at  the  same 
time  under  De  Sanctis  (1808-1869),  and  Gavazzi  (1809- 
1889),  at  a  more  thoroughly  evangelical  spirit. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  Holland  has  been  disturbed 
by  the  rise  of  a  rationalistic  tendency  within  it.  As  a 
result  of  the  conflict  with  rationalism  the 
inHoiknd.  Church  was  divided  in  1839  ^^^^  the  evan- 
gelical Christian  Reformed  Church  and  the 
rationalistic  Reformed  State  Church.  Within  the  latter 
body  a  reaction  towards  evangelicalism  has  devel- 
oped three  parties — the  Calvinistic  wing  led  by  Kuyper, 
the  Rationalistic  led  by  Kuenen  and  Scholten,  and  the 
Middle  evangelical  party  led  by  Van  Oosterzee.  There 
has  also  existed  in  Holland  a  small  Lutheran  Church. 

In  Scotland  the  system  of  lay  patronage,  abolished  in 
the  revolution  of  1688,  was  restored  by  Queen  Anne  in 
17 1 2.  But  the  Church  never  acquiesced  in 
Scoaand""^*^  '"  tliis  restoration.  A  constant  feeling  of  oppo- 
sition was  cherished  for  over  a  century,  and 
found  vent  in  frequent  protests.  Finally  the  Assembly 
of  1834  passed  the  Veto  Act,  conceding  to  each  congre- 
gation the  right  of  rejecting  ministers  placed  over  them  by 
lay  patrons.  But  the  advocates  of  lay  patronage  appealed 
to  the  civil  courts  and  were  sustained  by  them.  Its  op- 
ponents appealed  to  Parliament  for  redress,  and  failing  to 
get  it,  seceded  in  1843  ^"d  organized  the  Free  Church 
under  the  leadership  of  Thomas  Chalmers.  "J'he  nucleus 
of  the  new  organization  consisted  of  451  ministers  who 
relinquished  their  places  and  emoluments  without  any 
other  resources,  but  such  as  the  free-will  offerings  of 
those  who  were  like-minded  with  themselves.  But  with 
the  learning  and  ability  of  wise  leaders,  of  whom  Chalmers 
was  the  chief,  they  soon  put  the  Free  Church  on  a  sound 
basis.  In  1876  the  Cameronians  and  Reformed  Presby- 
terians joined  the  Free  Church.  In  1847  the  United  Se- 
cession Church  and  the  Relief  Church,  which  had  existed 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY. 


301 


as  separate  bodies  for  a  century,  amalgamated  in  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  and  thus  the 
number  of  Presbyterian  churches  in  Scotland  has  been 
reduced  to  three. 

The  theology  of  the  period  has  been  affected,  as  already 
intimated,  by   the   course   of  philosophic   thought.     The 

mediator  between  philosophy  and  theolcgy  in 
Schleiermacher.  Germany  was  Friedrich  Schleiermacher  (1768- 

1834),  a  man  of  keen  analytical  and  critical 
genius,  and  at  the  same  time  of  warm  glowing  piety.  He 
laid  down  the  fundamental  propositions,  that  religion  is 
the  sense  of  dependence,  that  dogmatic  theology  is  the 
consciousness  of  the  Church  put  into  expression,  that  sin 
is  the  dominion  of  the  flesh  over  the  spirit ;  Christ  came, 
as  the  only  miracle  in  the  world,  to  reverse  this  order  and 
establish  the  dominion  of  the  spirit  over  the  flesh,  and, 
finally, that  Christ  does  this  by  overcoming  evil  and  making 
those  who  trust  in  him  sharers  in  his  victory  and  .rule 
over  evil.  Christ  thus  realizes  the  God-consciousness. 
He  will  ultimately  restore  all  things  to  their  proper 
sphere. 

The  influence  of  Schleiermacher  was  immeasurable  and 
wholesome.     Although  he  did  not  lead  theology  back  to 

the  strictest  evangelicalism,  he  restored  it  to 
His  Influence,    a  respectcd  place  and  stimulated  discussion, 

so  that  in  modified  forms  his  system  has  re- 
appeared within  evangelicalism.  Some  of  his  most 
eminent  followers  in  Germany  have  been  Neander,  J.  P. 
Lange,  Twesten,  Julius  Miiller,  Dorner,  and  R.  Rothe. 

Hegelianism    also    issued     in     important    theological 
speculations.     David  Friedrich  Strauss  (1808-1874)  tried 

under  its  subtle  pantheistic  influence  to  re- 
la'^"andthe  solvc  the  Gospcl  history  into  a  web  of  myth, 
Tubingen  spun  uuconsciously  by  the  apostolic  genera- 

School,  ^j^^^  l^^j.  f^^^p^j  himself  at  the  last  constrained 

to  drift  into  pantheistic  atheism.  Ferdinand  Christian 
Baur  (17^2-1860)  sought  with  greater  care  to  construct  a 
philosophy  of  history  on  the  Hegelian  basis  and  apply  it 
to  the  early  ages  of  Christianity.  He  founded  the  Tubin- 
gen School  of  Criticism,  which  worked  on  the  basis  that 


,Q2  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

the  Church  arose  out  of  a  conflict  of  tendencies.  But  the 
theory  after  being  elaborated  by  a  group  of  brilliant 
scholars  was  seen  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

Finally,  Albrecht  Ritschl  (i 822-1889)  rebelled  against 
the  domination  of  philosophy  in  theology,  and  founded  a 
new  non-metaphysical  system.     Accepting  the 
Ritschl.  supernatural,    as    well    as    the    authority    of 

Jesus  Christ,  but  separating  all  metaphysical 
elements  and  excluding  them  as  extraneous,  and  at  the 
same  time  applying  a  rigid  criticism  to  the  sources  of 
Christian  thought,  he  attempts  out  of  the  residue  to  con- 
struct the  primitive  teaching  of  Christianity.  His  system 
has  been  welcomed  by  some  as  a  reaction  from  rational- 
ism, and  has  exerted  an  increasing  influence  on  the  the- 
ological thought  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 

The  influence  which  has  leavened  theology  in  England, 
however,  has  been  that  of  the   elder  philosophy  passed 
through  the  refining  mind  of  Samuel  Taylor 
s.  T.  Coleridge.  Coleridge     (1772-1834).      Coleridge     taught 
that  belief  in   God  is  a  dictate  of  the   con- 
science, and  that  it  is  therefore  a  duty  to  believe  and  a 
sin  not  to  believe.     Faith  in  Christ  follows  belief  in  God 
on  the  presentation  of  Christ  to  the  mind.      But  to  the 
believer  in  Christ  the  next  step  is  quite  as  natural,  being 
faith  in  the  Scriptures.    Original  sin  consists  in  the  choice 
of  a  sinful  earthly  life  in  a  previous  condition  of  existence. 
Coleridge's    views,    animated    by    the    spirit    of    the 
latitudinarian   movement  of  the  previous  age,  produced 
the    Broad    Church   party  in    England.     The 
p.road  Church    earlier  phase  of  Broad  Churchism  was  repre- 
Pany  lu  Eng-    ^^^^^^  j^^  ^^le  writings  of  a  group  of  writers 
called  the   Earlier  Oriel   School.     The  main 
aim  of  these  writers  was  to  make  the  Established  Church 
as  comprehensive  as  possible.      They  taught  accordingly 
that    episcopacy    was    justified   by    expediency,  but   not 
necessarily    by     divine     appointment.     Most    prominent 
among    the     Early  Oriel    men    were    Richard    Whateley 
(1787-1863),    and    Thomas    Arnold    (1795-1842).  _    The 
later  Broad  Church  party  includes  men  like  Frederick  D. 
Maurice   (1805-1872),    Charles    Kingsley    (1819-1875), 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY.  303 

Henry  H.  Milman  (i 791-1868),  Arthur  P.  Stanley  (1815- 
1881),  F.  W.  Robinson  (1816-1853),  and  Julius  C.  Hare 
(1795-1855),  who  not  only  adopted  the  comprehensive- 
ness of  their  predecessors  of  the  Early  Oriel  School,  but 
also  departed  from  the  common  beliefs  of  the  Church  in 
theology. 

The  most  marked  movement  in  the  Anglican  Church 
during  the  present  age  has  been  the  rise  of  the  High 
Church  party.  This  movement  began  with  a 
Tractarianism.  revival,  especially  at  Oxford  University,  of 
the  study  of  history.  The  theology  of  the 
middle  ages  attracted  men  and  begat  a  desire  for  a  return 
to  it,  purged,  of  course,  of  its  objectionable  features. 
John  Henry  Newman  (1801-1890),  Henry  E.  IManning 
(1808-1892),  John  Keble  (1792-1866),  Edward  B.  Pusey 
(1800-1882),  and  Frederick  \V,  Faber  (1814-1863),  all  men 
of  great  talents  and  fervent  imaginative  temperament,  as 
well  as  sincere  piety,  banded  themselves  together  in  the 
publication  of  a  series  of  Tracts  for  the  Times.  In  these 
they  made  an  attack  on  the  growing  laxity  of  the  Church 
in  matters  of  doctrine  and  polity.  Tract  No.  go,  written 
by  Newman,  created  a  special  stir  by  its  advocacy  of 
Romanizing  tendencies.  In  other  productions  the 
Tractarians  insisted  on  the  apostolic  origin  of  the 
episcopate,  and  the  necessity  of  apostolic  succession 
They  taught  baptismal  regeneration,  and  the  real 
presence,  in  a  transubstantiational  sense,  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist. 

Their  effort  was,  in  a  word,  to  find  a  middle  ground 
between  the  Lutheran  or  rather  Anglican  Reform  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  But  this  they  found  im- 
possible. One  by  one  their  leaders,  Newman,  Faber  and 
Manning,  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  communion.  Keble 
and  Pusey  remained  with  the  High  Church  party  and  led 
it  in  its  warfare  against  Broad  Churchism  and  evangel- 
icalism. 

The  evangelical  party  in  the  Church,  meanwhile,  under 

the  name  of  the   Low  Church  party,  has  en- 

Party^^"'^'^'^      g3.ged    in     practical    labors    looking    to    the 

advancement   of   the   gospel  and    spread   of 

spiritual  ideals. 


304 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


A  new  church  sprang  up  under  peculiar  circumstances 
in  Scotland.  Edward  Irving  (i 792-1834),  a  former  col- 
league of  Chalmers  at  Glasgow,  was  in  1833 
^fdThe'^cIuioHc deposed  from  the  ministry  by  the  Presbytery 
Apostolic  of  Annan  for  heresy.  His  peculiar  views 
were  that  Jesus  Christ  took  on  himself  sin- 
ful human  nature,  with  inborn  predisposition  to  moral 
evil  and  corruption  ;  that  through  the  Holy  Spirit  he 
kept  this  nature  from  breaking  out  in  open  sin,  and 
gradually  purified  it  through  struggle  and  suffering  and 
death;  that  the  atonement  consists  in  this  purification  ; 
men  become  partakers  of  the  purified  humanity  of  Christ 
by  faith.  The  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Church  was 
exemplified  in  the  apostolic  age  and  the  Church  must  re- 
turn to  the  exact  type  of  life  of  the  apostolic  Church,  in- 
cluding the  restoration  of  the  apostolate  and  of  extraor- 
dinary manifestations  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Upon  the  basis 
of  these  views  The  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  was  or- 
ganized. 

The  chief  characteristic,  however,  of  the  contemporary 
period,  is  its  devotion  to  practical  Christian  work.  It  is 
during  this  age  that  Bible  societies,  Sabbath- 
TendTncy.  schools,  tract  socicties,  Christian  alliances, 
and  a  world-wide  missionary  effort  have  been 
undertaken  by  the  evangelical  churches.  All  of  these 
have  been  attended  with  remarkable  success,  and  given  a 
peculiar  character  to  nineteenth-century  evangelicalism 
which  cannot  fail  to  remain  on  it  as  its  permanent  badge. 

The  first  of  these  practical  enterprises  of  the  Protestant 

churches  was  the  foreign   missionary  work.      Up  to  the 

end    of    the    eighteenth    century    missionary 

Missions.    Wii-],^|-,Qj.g  ^y   Protestants   were  sporadic  and  in- 

liam  Carey  ,.    ■  ,        ,  ^  ,         ,         ••  ri 

dividual.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present 
era  a  new  principle  was  brought  into  this  field,  that 
of  organization  into  local  and  private  societies  of  evan- 
gelicals who  had  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  at 
heart.  The  initiator  of  the  new  stage  of  missionary 
life  in  this  manner  was  William  Carey  (1761-1834),  who 
persuaded  twelve  Baptist  ministers  to  contribute  the  sum 
of  ^13  23.  6d.  ($65),  and  organize  themselves  into  the 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURY.  305 

Particular   Society  for   Propagating    the   Gospel    among 

the     Heathen.      This    was    in     1792.       Carey    went    to 

Calcutta  as  the  missionary  of  this  association. 

The  Mission-       t-i  • .  i  r       , 

aries.  ihe    experiment   proved    a   perfect    success. 

IMarshman  and  \Vard  followed  Carey,  and 
within  twenty  five  years  another  Baptist  organization  was 
started  under  the  name  of  the  "  General  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  "  (1816).  Both  of  these  societies  have  had  ample 
support  and  encouragement  through  their  history  since. 
The  new  idea  was  taken  up  by  the  other  evangelical 
bodies.     In    1795    the  London    Missionary    Society  was 

formed,  and  Robert  Morrison  (i 782-1834)  was 
wnliims'  Ellis  ^^^^  ^°  China,  where  he  translated  the  Bible 
Moffat,  Liv-  '  and  paved  the  way  for  all  subsequent  mission 
mgston.  work  by  composing  a  grammar  and  diction- 

ary of  the  language  for  the  use  of  future  missionaries. 
The  same  society  sent  John  \\'illiams  (1796-1839)  to  the 
South  Sea  Islands  and  William  Ellis  (i 794-1872)  to  Mada- 
gascar, which  was  ultimately  Christianized,  giving  occa- 
sion, however,  during  the  process  of  its  conversion  for  the 
manifestation  on  the  part  of  native  converts  of  the  highest 
type  of  Christian  heroism  under  persecution.  Robert 
Aloffat  (i 795-1883)  spent  his  life  in  South  Africa,  and 
David  Livingstone  (1813-1873),  his  son-in-law,  penetrated 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  that  portion  of  Africa  which 
was  known,  and  opened  the  way  for  commerce  and  civili- 
zation as  well  as  for  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  to  tribes 
and  in  regions  previously  unknown. 

In  Scotland  the  Scottish  Missionary  Society  was  organ- 
ized in  Edinburgh  in  1796.     It  occupied  as  its  special  fields 

regions  of  India,  China,  and  the  Mohamme- 
Scottish  Mis-      (}an  Tartars  of  Russia  dwelling  between  the 

Caspian  and  the  Black  Seas.  The  Glasgow 
Missionary  Society  came  into  existence  the  same  year 
and  chose  for  its  labors  Kafraria  in  Africa.  A  remark- 
able episode  in  the  life  of  this  society  was  the  diversion 
of  the  gift  of  Robert  Haldane  from  the  cause  of  foreign 
missions  to  home  missionary  work  in  Scotland.  The 
gift  was  turned  aside  from  its  original  purpose  because  it 
had  been  designated  for  the  support  of  missionaries  in 
20 


3o6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

India,  and  when  the  attempt  was  made  to  land  these  mis- 
sionaries it  was  not  permitted  by  the  authorities. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  was  in  a  certain 
sense  an  offshoot  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
The  latter  was  started  as  an  interdenomina- 
Church  Mis-  tional  association.  But  the  Anglican  members 
sionary  oae  y.  ^^  .^  deemed  it  their  duty  to  undertake  a  work 
of  their  own  on  a  larger  scale  than  was  represented  in  a 
partial  interest  in  the  older  society.  Their  anticipations 
of  the  greatness  of  the  work  they  could  accomplish  have 
been  fully  realized.  The  Church  Society  has  had  a  re- 
markable growth,  and  has  occupied  fields  in  Africa, 
India,  New  Zealand,  China,  Mauritius,  and  the  Victoria 
Nyanza.  Another  very  prosperous  missionary  society  has 
been  that  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  of  England.  This 
has  also  occupied  hard  and  apparently  inaccessible  fields, 
such  as  the  islands  of  Polynesia,  South  Africa,  South 
India,  and  South  China. 

But  the  missionary  idea  also  crossed  the  English  Chan- 
nel and  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  large  number  of 
societies  in  almost  all  the  Protestant  countries 
The  Missionary  of  Europc.  At  the  samc  time  the  Moravians 
theChrnne"  and  the  Danish  Halle  Mission,  in  existence 
previously,  received  a  new  infusion  of  life. 
Among  the  fruits  of  this  revival  of  evangelistic  zeal  are 
to  be  numbered  missionary  organizations  in  such  lands  as 
the  Netherlands,  harassed  as  it  was  by  rationalism,  and 
France,  with  its  persecuted  Reformed  Church. 

The  main  work  of  preaching  the  gospel,  it  was  soon 

found  on  the  mission  fields,  was  not  only  strengthened  by 

work  in  education,  medicine  and  special  min- 

Special  Mis-      istrations  to     special     classes,    but    in    many 

sions.  .  •■  1  1  ^  11     -L 

instances  it  could  not  very  well  be  accom- 
plished without  such  special  ministrations.  Thus  arose 
medical  missionary  societies,  like  that  of  Edinburgh 
founded  by  Dr.  Abercrombie  in  1841  ;  women's  mission- 
ary societies  were  also  formed  first  in  1854  to  penetrate 
into  the  Zenana  system  of  India.  Finally,  the  Jews  were 
chosen  as  a  special  class  needing  a  course  of  dealing 
different  from  any  other  subjects,  and  organizations  were 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  THE  19TH  CENTURV. 


307 


established  having  as  their  special  work  the  Christianiza- 
tion  of  Israelites. 

The  last  step  forward  in  the  growth  of  the  missionary 
idea  was  taken  in  1830  when  Thomas  Chalmers  persuaded 

the  Church  of  Scotland  to  resolve  itself  prac- 
Churchesas  tically  iuto  a  missionary  society.  The  work 
Organizations,    belonged,  he  claimed,  to  the  Church  as  such, 

and  not  to  any  number  of  its  members  as  pri- 
vate individuals.  The  proposal  was  accepted  and  Alex- 
ander Duff  (1806-1878)  was  sent  to  India  as  the  mission- 
ary of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  When  the  Free  Church 
broke  away  from  the  Establishment  in  Scotland  Duff 
attached  himself  to  the  new  branch.  Both  the  branches 
have  continued  their  missionary  work  on  the  basis  of  the 
principle  of  Chalmers,  besides  furnishing  an  example  to 
other  churches  in  the  same  direction. 

The  call  came  from  the  mission  field  quite  early  for  the 
Bible  in  the  vernacular  languages  of  the  peoples  to  whom 

the  missionaries  were  taking  the  gospel.  To 
Bible  Societies,  meet  this  demand   the    British    and  Foreign 

Bible  Society  was  formed  in  1804  as  an 
undenominational  organization.  The  question,  however, 
presently  arose  whether  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment constitutes  a  part  of  the  Bible  which  this  society  was 
to  distribute.  After  an  agitation  of  two  years  (1827- 
1828)  this  "Apocrypha  controversy"  was  closed  by  the 
exclusion  of  the  disputed  books  from  the  society's  printed 
Bibles.  But  this  conclusion  was  not  satisfactory  to  the 
branches  of  the  society  in  Germany,  and  these  accordingly 
seceded  and  formed  the  Berlin  Bible  Society. 

The  Bible  began  to  be  taught  to  the  children,  especially 
of  the  poor  and  destitute,  also,  with  the  beginning  of  the 

contemporary  period.  The  founder  of  the 
Sunday-Schools.  Sunday-scho'ol     was     Robert     Raikes.        He 

gathered  together,  in  lySijSome  poor  illiterate 
children  and  began  to  teach  them  reading  and  writing 
in  order  that  he  might  later  instruct  them  in  the  Bible  and 
the  catechism.  The  evangelical  churches  seized  upon 
the  idea  and  soon  the  Sunday-school  became  one  of  the 
indispensable  agencies  for  imparting  religious  knowledge 


3o8  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

to  the  children  of  the  rich  and  poor  alike.  As  first  pro- 
jected it  was  naturally  crude.  It  was  reformed,  or  rather 
improved,  in  1820  by  James  Gall,  who  introduced  the  ele- 
ment of  instruction  in  place  of  a  large  amount  of  memo- 
rizing, previously  constituting  the  main  work.  Later  uni- 
form lessons  were  introduced,  and  finally  the  Interna- 
tional system  now  in  use  was  adopted  in  1872. 

The   feeling  of   internal   unity   among   evangelicals   in 
spite  of  outward  differences  led,  at  the  opening  of  the  cen- 
tury, to  various  efforts  at  amalgamation  which 
'^'?^.^y^"seii-    were  partially  successful.      In  the  Evangelical 

cal  Alliance.  ,it  i  .  r  to       ^  "•'^ 

Alliance,  however,  there  was  found  an  instru- 
ment for  expression  and  at  the  same  time  promoting  this 
feeling  in  view  of  the  growth  of  Roman  Catholicism  on 
the  one  side  and  of  unbelief  on  the  other.  One  of  the 
first  promoters  of  the  Alliance  was  Thomas  Chalmers. 
It  was  organized  in  1846  with  the  threefold  end  in  view 
of  promoting  fraternal  relations  among  evangelical  Chris- 
tians, of  defending  and  disseminating  the  fundamental 
truths  of  the  gospel,  and  of  defending  and  promoting  tol- 
eration and  religious  liberty  everywhere. 

Its  constitution  includes  the  following  articles  as  the 
basis  of  belief  accepted  by  the  covenanting  evangelical 
bodies:  (i)  The  divine  origin  and  inspiration 
Ind  wo'rkf'""  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments ;  (2)  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ;  (3) 
the  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  or  the  divinity  of  Jesus 
Christ  ;  (4)  the  doctrine  of  original  Sin  ;  (5)  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone ;  (6)  the  necessity  and  obligatory 
nature  of  the  two  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper ;  (7)  the  resurrection  of  the  body ;  (8)  the 
future  judgment;  and  (9)  everlasting  rewards  and 
punishments.  The  Alliance  has  strictly  adhered  to  this 
basis  and  has  therefore  not  included  Unitarianism,  the 
Society  of  Friends,  or  any  other  bodies  which  are  only  in 
general  sympathy  with  its  objects,  but  cannot  accept 
these  fundamental  positions.  It  has  held  conventions  at 
irregular  intervals  and  has  striven  to  realize  the  ends  of 
its  founders. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE   COi^ONIAL 
ERA   (1492-1789), 

The  first  century  after  the  discovery  of  the  Western 
hemisphere  was  taken  up  with  exploration.  With  the 
opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  begins 
Discoveries.  properly  the  period  of  colonization.  But 
during  the  period  both  of  exploration  and  of 
colonization  the  Christian  religion  made  its  advance  on 
the  continent  side  by  side  with  the  explorer  and  colonist. 
Columbus  himself  alleged  three  motives  for  his  enter- 
prise of  discovery,  viz.  :  (i)  desire  for  wealth,  (2)  love  of 
adventure,  and  (3)  search  for  new  fields  where  the  Church 
might  be  planted.  Gain  and  adventure  took  a  more 
important  part  in  molding  the  course  of  those  who 
followed  him,  but  the  religious  motive  was  never  alto- 
gether lost  sight  of. 

When  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez  entered  Mexico  on 
their  campaign  of  conquest  they  had  in  the  invading  army 
the  missionary  who  was  to  be  known  as  "the 
^iTci^onTza-  apostle  of  Mexico"— Bartolome  de  01  medo. 
tionofthe  I'hey   finished    their    conquest    in    1520,  and 

k^her™  ""'"'  within  twenty  years  after  this  event  the  natives 
had  nominally  accepted  Christianity  through- 
out Mexico  and  California  up  to  the  line  of  the  future 
State  of  Washington.  This  conversion  was  naturally 
superficial.  It  substituted  Roman  Catholic  ceremonies 
in  place  of  the  human  sacrifices  and  other  abominable 
practices  of  the  Aztec  religion.  But  this  in  itself  was  a 
vast  gain. 

Another  Spanish  missionary  of  the  early  days  was  Bar- 
tolome' de   Las  Casas  (1471-1566),  who  spent  his  life  in 

309 


3IO  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  Indians,  often  inter- 
posing between  the  Spaniards  and  the  natives 
fionaries^^'^  and  saving  the  latter  from  cruel  massacre. 
To  keep  the  Spaniards  from  inflicting  slavery 
on  the  Indians  he  suggested  the  idea  of  importing  African 
slaves  and  lived  long  enough  to  regret  that  he  had 
made  the  suggestion. 

Closely  following  the  Spaniards  in  order  of  time  came 
the  French.  They  directed  their  course  to  the  north- 
east and  occupied  Canada,  founding  Montreal 
French  Jesuits,  and  establishing  a  seat  of  Jesuit  influence. 
From  this  center  the  Jesuits  reached  the 
Indians  of  a  vast  tract  extending  over  the  States  now 
lying  between  Maine  and  New  York.  Pressing  into  the 
interior,  the  French,  accompanied  by  Jesuit  priests,  came 
to  the  Mississippi  valley.  Joliet  and  Father  Marquette 
penetrated  to  the  very  headwaters  of  the  great  river,  and 
then  down  the  valley  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas. 
Wherever  they  went  they  established  missionary  stations. 
LaSalle  went  even  farther,  reaching  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  proclaiming  the  whole  territory  a  possession  of  King 
Louis  XIV.  oi  France,  whence  it  was  called  Louisi- 
ana. The  Protestants  of  France  also  took  a  share  in 
settling  the  new  continent.  As  early  as  1562  and  1564 
colonies  of  Huguenots  were  sent  by  Coligny  ;  but  their 
experiences  were  generally  quite  as  unfortunate  here  as 
in  the  Old  World. 

English  explorers  were  among  the  very  first  to  set  out 
for  the  new  Western  continent.     Under  the  Cabots — John 
and  Sebastian — the  English  touched  at  Cape 
Coklnfes  Brcton  and  skirted  along  the  coast  from  New- 

foundland to  Florida.  Later  came  Martin 
Frobisher,  Captain  John  Smith,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and 
others.  Wherever  these  landed,  without  regard  to  pre- 
vious explorers  or  colonists,  they  proclaimed  the  land  a 
possession  of  the  king  of  England.  To  substantiate  this 
claim  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  resort  to  the  scheme 
of  colonization.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  repeatedly  attempt- 
ed to  take  possession  of  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  in 
this   way    but   without    success.      The    first    successful 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA,  1492-1789.  311 

colony  from  England  was  that  sent  to  the  James  River  in 
1607.  It  consisted  of  English  cavaliers  under  Captain 
John  Smith,  all  enthusiastic  members  of  the  Church  of 
England,  which  accordingly  was  fixed  as  their  church. 
Efforts  were  made  to  convert  the  Indians,  but  they 
simply  led  to  conflicts  and  massacres.  The  colony, 
however,  prospered  materially  and  increased  in  numbers. 
In  1620  the  Plymouth  colony  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts    under  very  peculiar    circumstances.       It 

consisted  of  Brownists  or  Independents,  who 
The  Pilgrims,    had  sought  for  many  years  for  a  place  where 

they  might  hold  and  practice  their  religious 
beliefs  unmolested.  They  had  taken  up  their  residence 
in  Holland  for  twelve  years  as  a  church  of  three  hundred 
communicants  under  their  pastor,  John  Robinson,  but 
hearing  of  the  New  World  and  finding  life  in  Holland  only 
a  little  less  objectionable  than  in  England,  they  determined 
to  face  the  dangers  and  trials  of  emigration.  They  em- 
barked in  two  vessels,  the  Mayflower  and  the  Speedwell, 
The  latter  was  found  unseaworthy  and  returned  to  port. 
The  Mayflower  crossed  with  her  passengers  and  landed 
them  on  Cape  Cod,  November  9,  1620.  The  next  month 
they  removed  to  the  western  side  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
They  endured  great  hardships  and  lost  half  their  num- 
ber from  the  severity  of  the  first  winter ;  but  they 
founded  a  town  and  called  it  Plymouth,  from  the  last 
place  they  had  seen  in  the  Old  World. 

A  third  English  colony  landed   on   the  shores  of  New 
England  in  1628,  under  John  Winthrop.     This  consisted 

of  eight  hundred  Puritans,  and  was  equipped 
SuriTanf     with    a   charter   given    them   by    Charles   I. 

Among  them  were  some  very  able  men,  such 
as  John  Cotton,  Thomas  Hooker  and  Roger  Williams. 
They  established  themselves  near  the  Plymouth  (Pil- 
grim) colony,  and  founded  the  town  of  Salem.  They 
came  into  direct  contact  with  the  Pilgrims,  and  in  organ- 
izing their  ecclesiastical  and  civil  government  they 
imbibed  many  ideas  from  the  earlier  settlement,  and 
ultimately  adopted  Independency  as  their  permanent  form 
of  church  polity. 


312 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


In   1636,  owing  to  differences  on  the  question  of  the 

civil    government,    three     settlements,     led   by    Thomas 

Hooker,   withdrew     from    Massachusetts   and 

Hooker  and       established  themselves  in  the  towns  of  W'ind- 

the  Connecticut  -..         .        ,  inri  r    ^  i  i         1 

Colony.  sor,     Harttord,    and    vVethersneld,    and    thus 

made  up  the  nucleus  of  the  future  State  of 
Connecticut.  A  colony  at  New  Haven  (Rodenburg) 
founded  as  an  independent  Puritan  settlement,  joined 
these  river  towns,  and  the  Connecticut  colony  was  thus 
fully  organized  in  1662. 

A    fourth    English     colony    was   founded   by     Charles 
Calvert,    Lord    Baltimore,  in   Maryland,  in    1634.     Lord 

Baltimore  had  been  a  Protestant,  but  became 
M^I^yLfd.         a  Roman    Catholic  and    determined  to  leave 

England.  He  secured  the  grant  of  a  charter, 
and  with  a  number  of  others  like-minded  with  himself, 
he  settled  on  the  present  State  of  Maryland.  'J'his 
colony,  though  chiefly  consisting  of  Roman  Catholics, 
was  organized  on  a  liberal  basis.  Protestants  were  toler- 
ated and  welcomed  into  it.  It  was  provided  in  its  or- 
ganic law  "  that  no  person  within  this  province  profess- 
ing to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ  shall  be  in  any  way  trou- 
bled, molested,  or  discountenanced  for  his  religion  or  in 
the  free  exercise  thereof."  This  was  a  matter  of  policy. 
It  was  intended  to  draw  colonists,  but  it  proved  ruinous 
to  Roman  Catholic  interests.  The  Protestants  came  in 
larger  numbers  than  the  Catholics,  and  soon,  finding  them- 
selves in  the  majority,  refused  that  liberty  to  "  papacy, 
prelacy,  and  licentiousness,"  which  the  papists  had 
granted  them  in  1688.  With  the  revolution  in  England, 
the  provincial  government  was  overthrown,  and  the  Church 
of  England  was  made  the  established  Church  in  Maryland. 
Still  another  English  colony  came  over  with  William 
Penn,  bringing  a  charter  granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1681. 

These  were  members  of  the  Society  of 
Pennsylvania.     Friends,  and  purchased   from  the    Indians  a 

large  tract  of  territory.  They  established  the 
colony  of  Pennsylvania,  and  made  it  the  refuge  of  perse- 
cuted Quakers.  But  its  constitution  was  the  most  liberal 
and  tolerant  hitherto  known.     All  forms  of  religious  be 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA,  1 492-1 7S9.  3 1 3 

lief  were  put  on  an  equality.  Only  matters  of  conduct 
were  made  subjects  of  legislation,  but  in  these  matters 
strictness  of  discipline  was  exercised. 

The  last  of  the   English    colonies   was  that  founded  in 
Georgia  by  Oglethorpe  in  1732.     He  brought  over  a  com- 
pany of  unfortunate  men,  who  in  England  had 
Georgia.  incurred  punishment  for  inability  to  pay  their 

debts,  as  the  laws  of  the  country  were  on  this 
matter  severe  to  the  point  of  cruelty.  These  were  joined 
by  a  company  of  persecuted  Protestants  from  Austria. 

Besides  these  large  colonies,  Great  Britain  contributed 
to  the  settlement  of  the  land  a  number  of  smaller  com- 
panies of  Scotch  and  Irish,  and  Scotch-Irish 
pa^iles^.*^  °™'  Protestants,  who  fled  before  the  persecutions 
of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1665-1685). 
These  scattered  over  eastern  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania 
(especially  the  Cumberland  and  the  Allegheny  valleys), 
Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  North  Carolina. 

The  English  colonies  in  Virginia  prospered  and  at- 
tracted emigrants  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  the  send- 
ing out  of  colonies  from  the  province  into  the 
Caroiinas.  less  thickly  Settled  regions  of  the  country 
further  south.  Thus  arose  the  Caroiinas. 
The  new  settlements  were,  however,  soon  reinforced  by 
emigrants  directly  from  Europe,  among  whom  were  some 
from  France  of  Huguenot  affiliations,  and  some  Luther- 
ans from  Germany. 

Next  to  the  English  in  commercial  enterprise  dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  were  the 
Dutch.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Dutch 
ment.  ^  ^  East  India  Company  in  1607,  Henry  Hud- 
son started  on  a  voyage  of  exploration, 
seeking  especially  for  the  northeast  passage  (the 
channel  which  unites  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans). 
In  the  course  of  his  travels  he  came  to  the  mouth 
of  the  river  which  now  bears  his  name.  Thus 
Manhattan  Island  was  settled  in  1615  by  a  few  straggling 
traders,  who  established  their  posts  along  the  river.  The 
most  important  of  these  trading  stations  was  the  village 
of  New  Amsterdam.     It  was  here  that  the  first  church 


314  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

was  organized  on  the  Western  hemisphere.  All  other 
religious  organizations  had  come  either  as  branches  of 
churches  existing  in  Europe,  or  as  independent  organiza- 
tions with  a  corporate  life  before  they  landed  on  the 
western  shores.  I'he  church  at  New  Amsterdam  was 
patterned  after  the  model  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
Holland,  and  was  Presbyterian.  During  the  course  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  English  gradually  encroached 
on  the  original  settlers  and  gained  on  them  until  Peter 
Stuyvesant  was  finally  forced  to  surrender  the 
New  York.  colony  to  them.  The  name  of  New  Amster- 
dam was  changed  to  that  of  New  York,  and 
the  Church  of  England  was  put  in  place  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  in  the  position  of  established  state  Church, 

As  the  era  of  colonization   advanced,  it  became  evident 
that  the  new  hemisphere  was  to  be  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions,  corresponding    approximately  with    its 
Catholicism       natural  division  into  North  and  South  America, 

and  Puritanism  .  ' 

in  America.  and  that  the  northern  section  was  to  be  con- 
trolled by  Protestants,  while  the  southern 
would  come  under  the  domination  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  Catholic  element  in  the  North  was  re- 
duced to  a  secondary  place,  partly  by  a  series  of  wars  be- 
tween the  Catholic  French  and  the  English  Protestants,  in 
which  the  latter  ultimately  obtained  the  upper  hand,  and 
partly  by  purchases  and  concessions,  as  at  the  time  when 
Napoleon  sold  the  province  of  Louisiana  in  order  to  re- 
plenish his  empty  exchequer.  The  territory  of  Texas  was 
much  later  won  from  Mexico. 

Within  Protestantism  various  principles  as  to  the  rela- 
tions of  religion  to  the  State  made  their  appearance.  In 
New  England  the  basis  of  organization  was  at 
Protestantism,  fi^st  theocratic,  Church  membership  was  a 
qualification  of  citizenship.  It  is  true,  stat- 
utes to  this  effect  were  abrogated  by  Charles  II.  in  1662, 
but  public  sentiment  kept  the  line  between  citizenship 
and  church  membership  invisible.  Laws  were  enacted 
excluding  Quakers  from  the  Massachusetts  and  New 
Haven  colonies,  and  severe  penalties  were  attached  to 
the    violation    of  these    laws.       For    simply  bringing    a 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA,  1492-1789. 


315 


Quaker  into  New  Haven,  for  instance,  a  fine  of  ^50  was 
imposed.  Quakers  coming  on  their  own  account  on  busi- 
ness were  punished  for  the  tirst  offense  by  whipping,  hard 
labor,  or  seclusion.  If  the  offense  were  repeated  the 
transgressor  was  branded  with  a  hot  iron  on  one  arm,  as 
a  heretic,  with  the  letter  H.  Upon  again  repeating  the 
offense  he  was  branded  on  the  other  arm  in  the  same 
manner,  and  on  the  fourth  recurrence  of  the  offense  he  had 
his  tongue  pierced  with  a  red-hot  iron.  These  penalties, 
though  severe,  were  not  any  more  so  than  penalties 
attached  to  similar  laws,  either  in  England  or  in  Virginia, 
where  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  were  not  based 
on  the  theocratic,  but  the  Erastian  principle. 

One  of  the  earliest  victims  of  strict  theocratic  rule  in 

Massachusetts  was    Roger  \\'illiams    (1600-1683),      He 

was   expelled  from  the  Salem  colony  for  deny- 

Roger  Williams  in g  (hg  validity  of  the  charter  of  the  colony 

in  Rhode  °,     ^  ,  .-'  ,  ,  i       i         i  i  i 

Island  and  for  teaching  that  the  oath  should  not  be 

administered  to  the  unregenerate.  He  betook 
himself  to  Rhode  Island  and  founded  (1636)  the  city  of 
Providence.  Here  also  he  joined  himself  to  the  Baptists 
for  a  time,  but  w^ithdrew  from  their  fellowship  later.  The 
new  colony  founded  by  him  was  the  first  to  practice  uni- 
versal toleration.  Yet  even  here  a  law  was  enacted  in 
1663  denying  Roman  Catholics  civil  rights  and  liberties. 
Meanwhile  the  Massachusetts  colony  grew  steadily.  It 
was  felt  as  early  as  1637  that  some  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  question  of  organizing  the  Church 
Church  Govern- and  furnishing  it  with  laws  of  discipline.  A 
aru'setu.^^Cam- synod  was  accordingly  convened  but  did  not 
bridge  Platform. reach  definite  results.  The  legislature  of  the 
province  called  another  synod  in  1647  \\hich 
appointed  three  divines — Cotton,  Partridge,  and  Richard 
Mather — to  draw  up  a  platform  for  the  churches.  The 
result  of  their  labors  was  the  famous  Cambridge  Plat- 
form. The  doctrinal  standard  in  this  document  was  the 
Westminster  Confession.  The  articles  referring  to  the 
administration  of  the  government  were  generally  on  the 
Presbyterian  basis.  The  churches  were  to  have  a  pastor, 
a  teacher  and  an  elder  chosen  by  the  congregation  and 


31 6  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ordained  by  the  laying  on   of  hands.     Synods  were  to 
decide  controversies  and  cases  of  conscience. 

When    the   New   Haven   and  the  Connecticut  colonies 
united   in    1665,  it   appeared  that   differences  existed  be- 
tween  them   which  might  be  removed.     But 
l^atform^  HO  action  was   taken  in  the  direction   of  alter- 

ing the  earlier  practices  until  1708,  when  a 
synod  was  convened  by  the  government  and  agreed  on  the 
Saybrook  Platform.  The  influence  of  Presbyterianism 
on  this  section  of  New  England  is  distinctly  percept- 
ible in  the  provisions  of  this  Platform.  It  prescribed 
the  creation  of  consociations  or  permanent  councils 
within  the  districts  of  the  colony.  These  consociations 
were  to  consist  of  ministers  and  delegates  and  to  act  as 
final  courts  of  appeal.  A  difference  of  opinion,  however, 
arose  as  to  the  powers  of  the  consociations,  and  with  the 
wave  of  Independency  which  presently  swept  over  New 
England,  the  Presbyterian  tendency  of  the  Platform  was 
counteracted. 

It  has  been  noted  already  that  civil   privileges  were 
granted  in  New  England  only  to  members  of  the  Church. 
Church  membership  was  conditioned  on  pro- 
Co^veiTant.  fcssiou  of  the  experience  of  a  spiritual  change. 

When  the  number  of  those  who  could  not 
give  a  satisfactory  account  of  such  change  increased,  a 
movement  was  made  to  secure  some  recognition  and 
standing  for  them  in  the  State.  It  was  proposed  that 
they  be  regardedas  full  members  of  the  Cliurch,  and  given 
the  right  of  presenting  their  children  for  baptism.  After 
a  controversy  this  proposition  was  adopted  by  a  synod 
at  Boston,  and  was  c-illed  the  Half-way  Covenant.  It 
remained  in  force  until  the  middle  of  tlie  eighteenth 
century,  but  its  effect  was  felt  by  many  to  be  detrimental 
to  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Church. 

The  early  colonists,  both  in  New  England  and  in  other 

regions,  were  themselves  mostly  well  educated  men  who 

had  a   keen   appreciation    of   the    advantages 

in'^tircoiionies.  of    educatiou.      They,    therefore,^    no    sooner 

built  themselves  houses  to  live  in,  than  they 

also  established  free  common  schools  for  their  children. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA,  1492-1789.  317 

It  was  further  among  them  an  absolutely  indispensable 
qualification  of  their  ministers  that  they  should  be  well 
versed  in  the  best  learning  of  the  day.  As  they  could 
not  and  did  not  wish  to  depend  on  the  universities  of 
England  for  this  training,  they  very  early  planted  institu- 
tions of  higher  learning  on  the  new  soil.  Harvard  Uni- 
versity was  started  by  a  gift  of  John  Harvard  in  Newtown 
(afterwards  called  Cambridge)  in  1636.  It  secured  a 
regular  charter  in  1650.  In  Virginia  efforts 
Harvard,  Yale,  to  cstabHsh  a  collegc  proved  unsuccessful 
until  the  last  years  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  William  and  Mary  College  was  founded  (1693). 
Yale  College  arose  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  Harvard 
to  the  cause  of  a  strict  orthodox  theology  in  1701. 

The  year  1746  was  signalized  by  the  founding  of  two 
of  the  most  successful  institutions  in  the  land.  The  first 
of  these  was  Columbia  College  in  New  York  ; 
Princ'^tM'.  the  second,  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  The 
latter  was  started  by  the  Synod  of  New 
Jersey  in  Elizabethtown  with  Jonathan  Dickinson  as  its 
president.  When  the  first  president  died  the  college  was 
removed  to  Newark  in  order  to  be  under  the  presidency 
of  the  pastor  in  that  town — the  Rev.  Aaron  Burr — giving 
him  an  opportunitj'  at  the  same  time  to  continue  in  his 
pastoral  relation.  Presently,  however,  funds  were  raised 
and  an  offer  of  land  for  a  permanent  site  was  made  by 
Princeton  and  the  college  was  removed  thither  in  1757. 

Connected  either  directly  or  indirectly  with  these 
educational  institutions  there  arose  a  line  of  eminent  re- 
ligious thinkers  and  writers.  Many  of  these 
Theologians,  havc  been  incidentally  named  in  association 
with  their  special  labors.  John  Cotton  (1585- 
1652)  was  the  great  theologian  of  the  Puritan  colony  in 
Massachusetts.  Thomas  Hooker  (i 585-1 647)  was  a 
master  mind  whose  influence  in  organizing  the  colony  of 
Connecticut  was  destined  to  be  felt  throughout  the  whole 
land.  He  gave  the  idea  to  the  framers  of  the  constitution 
of  the  colony,  of  the  people  governing  themselves  in  the 
true  sense.  The  Mather  family  furnished  a  succession  of 
three  men  in  three  generations,  all  of  whom  contributed 


3i8  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

richly  to  the  intellectual  growth  of  the  nation.  Richard 
Mather  (1596-1669)  helped  to  frame  the  Cambridge 
Platform.  Increase  Mather,  his  son  (1639-1723),  was 
president  of  Harvard  College  and  the  writer  of  many 
works.  Cotton  Mather  (1663-1728),  son  of  Increase 
Mather,  was  a  most  prolific  author  whose  works,  espe- 
cially the  Magnalia  and  the  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,  constitute  a  mine  of  information  concerning  the 
early  history  of  New  England.  Jonathan  Dickinson 
(i 688-1 747)  and  Jonathan  Edwards  (i 703-1 758)  were 
both  presidents  of  Princeton  College,  and  without  doubt 
two  of  the  greatest  theologians  that  this  country  has 
produced.  Edwards  especially  displayed  in  metaphysics 
a  power  that  has  not  been  surpassed.  He  was  at  the 
same  time  effective  as  a  preacher  and  took  part  in  the 
great  revival  of  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  he 
opposed  the  Half-way  Covenant  and  was  instrumental, 
perhaps  more  than  any  other,  in  bringing  about  its  final 
abandonment.  In  many  other  ways  he  has  left  the  per- 
manent impress  of  his  wonderful  personality  on  New 
England  Theology. 

The  theology  of  the  Puritans  was  Calvinistic  ;  and  as 
such    it    was    maintained    throughout    the    colonial    era. 

Attempts  to  innovate  in  some  essential  partic- 
Hutchinsonians.  ulars   werc,  however,  not  wanting   from   the 

beginning.  One  of  the  most  peculiar  of  these 
was  the  view  proposed  by  Anne  Hutchinson,  and  defended 
by  her  brother-in-law,  John  Wheelwright.  According  to 
these  persons  justification  is  produced  by  direct  revelation 
or  divine  impression  on  the  justified  soul.  The  Holy  Spirit 
by  this  impression  establishes  a  union  between  himself 
and  the  Christian,  and  makes  him  incapable  of  sinning 
thenceforth.  They  further  taught  that  there  is  no  bodily 
resurrection,  but  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Scriptures  in- 
volves only  a  spiritual  rising  of  the  dead  soul  from  sin  by 
faith  in  Christ.  For  these  views  Anne  Hutchinson  was 
banished  from  the  Massachusetts  colony  and  later  excom- 
municated on  the  charge  of  falsehood.  Her  followers  who 
in  some  particulars,  perhaps,  went  beyond  her  teachings 
and  rightly  incurred  the  charge  of  being  Antinomians, 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA,  1492-1789.  319 

were  silenced,   and  the  controversy   ended    without  the 
serious  results  feared  from  it. 

Another  innovation  attempted  in  New  England  was  the 
view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  propounded  by  Solomon  Stod- 
dard.    This   divine  held  that   the  sacrament 
Solomon  being  a  means  of  grace  should  be  administered 

^f'thfYo'rd'^s'^^^  '^^  ^'^^  unregenerate  w'ith  a  view  to  their  spirit- 
Supper,  ual  improvement  and  preparation  for  the  re- 
generating influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Nat- 
urally this  theory  became  associated  with  the  Half-way 
Covenant.  It  never  found  much  favor,  however,  beyond 
a  small  local  circle  in  Boston. 

The  religious  life  of  the  colonies  varied  naturally  with 
the  type  of  Christianity  prevalent  in  each  locality.  While 
in  the  regions  where  the  English  Church  had 
Religious  Life,  been  brought  over  bodily  with  all  its  features, 
there  was  considerable  looseness  in  discipline, 
wherever  the  Puritans  had  established  themselves  the 
severer  and  more  sober  elements  were  emphasized. 
Church  services  in  such  surroundings  were  characterized 
by  extreme  simplicity,  though  not  by  brevity.  The  sermon 
was  made  the  main  feature  of  the  service,  and  consisted 
frequently  of  the  discussion  of  some  topic  of  dogmatic 
theology,  which  the  preacher  was  expected  to  "improve  " 
at  the  conclusion.  The  Old  Testament  was  a  favorite 
resort  for  texts.  Special  occasions  were  observed  by 
fast  and  thanksgiving  days,  on  which  attendance  at 
public  service  was  required  by  civil  statute. 

One  of  the  most  unique  episodes  in  Church  history  is 
the  Witchcraft  Delusion  of  the  closing  years  of  the 
seventeenth  century  in  Massachusetts.  The 
Delusk)"^'  belief  in  witchcraft  was  common  in  Europe 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  had  been  pre- 
served down  to  the  time  of  the  outbreak  in  New  England. 
Here,  however,  it  appeared  as  an  epidemic.  The  belief 
gained  ground  that  some  women  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  devil  and  practiced  magic  arts  by  his  aid.  They 
were  publicly  accused  of  this,  and  in  many  instances,  in 
spite  of  their  protests,  were  put  to  death  on  slender  and 
insufficient   testimony   of   any   misdeed.     The    delusion 


320 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


reached  its  acme  in  1692.  Tiie  Mathers  have  been  criti- 
cised for  encouraging  and  fomenting  it.  The  truth,  how- 
ever, is  that  they  were  simply  the  victims  of  the  delusion, 
like  their  contemporaries,  and  the  suggestion  made  by 
one  Mather  (Increase)  that  the  accusers  of  the  witches 
might  be  the  real  allies  of  the  devil  certainly  had  the 
effect  of  arresting  the  epidemic. 

In  the  effort  to  obtain  a  foothold  on  the  land  and  build 
necessary  institutions,  the  Christian  colonists  did  not  lose 

sight  altogether  of  their  duty  to  the  heathen 
Missions.  Indians    by    whom    they    were    surrounded. 

Efforts  were  put  forth  at  every  point  to  bring 
them  to  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel.  The  most  signifi- 
cant of  these  were  those  of  John  Eliot  (1604-1690),  "the 
apostle  to  the  Indians."  Born  in  England,  this  zealous 
missionary  came  over  in  1631,  and  set  himself  to  the  task 
of  mastering  the  Pequot  language  with  the  aid  of  a  native. 
He  then  began  his  labors  among  the  Pequots,  and  be- 
came so  enthusiastic  that  he  was  able  to  persuade  his 
friends  in  England  to  organize  themselves  as  the  Society 
for  promoting  and  propagating  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ 
in  New  England.  He  reduced  the  language  of  the  abo- 
rigines to  writing,  composed  grammars  and  primers,  and 
translated  Baxter's  CVrZ/and  Bayly's  Practice  of  Popery  into 
it.  His  principal  work  was  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
the  Indian  language  (1661-1663). 

Many  others  took  up  the  work,  among  them   Sargeant, 
who   established    the    Stockbridge    Mission,    and    David 

Brainerd  (17 18-1747),  who,  in  1742,  began  at 
Brafnerd!  Kiudcrhook,    near    the    Hudson    River,    and 

thence  removed  to  the  Susquehanna.  His 
career  was  brief;  he  labored  for  only  four  years,  but  his 
work  was  characterized  by  such  Christian  devotion  that 
his  example  raised  up  and  inspired  many  active  Christian 
laborers. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   CHURCH   IN  AMERICA  DURING   THE  NATIONAL 
ERA  (1776-  ). 

The  war  of  Independence,  for  the  time  that  it  lasted, 
absorbed  the  whole  energy  and  attention  of  the  colonies 
and  paralyzed  activity  in  every  other  direction, 
of°ReHgion'°"  ^'^^  religious  not  excluded.  It  is  true  that 
the  clerg}',  even  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
which  was  directly  allied  and  affiliated  with  the  Church 
of  England,  declared  themselves  for  the  independence  of 
the  Colonies;  but  the  reflex  beneficial  effect  of  this  atti- 
tude in  popularizing  the  cause  of  religion  was  counteracted 
by  the  natural  evil  result  of  a  condition  of  war.  At  the 
end  of  the  struggle  the  churches  were  in  a  much  weaker 
state  than  for  a  generation  before. 

At    the    same   time    deism    was    introduced    into    the 
colonies,  both  in  its  English  and  in  its  French  forms.    The 
French   type   became   especially    popular.     It 
Deism  and        spread  into  the  colleges.    A  contemporary  calls 
Infidelity.  ^^^  collcgc  of  William  and   Mary    "a  hot-bed 

of  French  politics  and  religion."  Yale  College  was,  at  the 
time  when  Timothy  Dwight,  the  elder,  assumed  the  presi- 
dency of  it,  full  of  societies  and  clubs  of  atheists.  The 
students  fell  into  the  habit  of  taking  on  themselves  the 
names  of  French  infidels  whom  they  specially  admired. 
From  the  colleges  the  evil  spread  into  politics.  Many 
prominent  men  were  pronounced  adherents  of  deism. 
Dearborn  considered  churches  as  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
good  government.  Edmund  Randolph  was  a  deist,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson  very  nearly  approached  the  same  stand- 
point. Thomas  Paine's  Age  of  Reason  was  accepted  as  an 
oracle  of  truth  by  many,  in  spite  of  its  superficiality  and 
the  many  convincing  answers  that  had  been  written  in 
21  321 


322  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

rebuttal  of  its  positions.  Under  the  power  of  these  in- 
riuences  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  dismissed  its  chaplain, 
and  many  of  the  towns  of  that  colony  went  to  the  extent 
of  changing  their  names  for  those  of  French  unbelievers. 
The  Church  was  numerically  reduced  and  appeared  to  be 
on  the  verge  of  a  collapse.  The  total  number  of  Christian 
churches  of  every  name  was  under  two  thousand,  and  of 
ministers  under  fifteen  hundred. 

Out  of  this  state  of  depression  the  Church  was  lifted  to 
a  healthier  and  more  vigorous  state  by  the  great  revival 

of  1796-1803.  This  awakening  was  not 
fy^Jb^^Lf.         characterized  by  the  special  prominence  in  it 

of  any  individual  or  individuals,  but  seemed 
to  come  spontaneously  among  the  people.  It  began  in 
Connecticut  and  spread  throughout  the  whole  land.  In 
Yale  College,  President  Dwight  promoted  the  movement 
by  his  personal  efforts.  The  number  of  professing 
Christian  students  in  the  college  was  increased  from  twelve 
to  nearly  ninety,  and  one-half  of  that  number  determined 
at  once  to  enter  the  ministry.  The  other  colleges  of  New 
England  showed  a  similar  change  of  complexion  after  the 
revival.  Spreading  to  the  westward,  the  movement  led 
to  home  missionary  work,  the  organization  of  Sunday- 
schools,  Bible  and  tract  societies,  and  the  system  of 
annual  camp-meetings. 

When  the  colonies  cut  loose  from  the  mother  country, 
all  the  conditions  favored  the  development  of  the  feeling 

for  an  absolute  separation  of  Church  and 
Free  Church      State.      The  impossibility  of  a  national  estab- 

Systems.  1  -^ 

lished  Church,  on  account  of  the  differences 
of  denominations  in  the  various  colonies,  the  indifference  of 
many  of  the  leading  men  in  politics  to  all  churches,  the 
equal  strength  of  many  denominations  in  some  of  the 
colonies,  all  worked  in  favor  of  the  system  of  free 
churches,  which  ultimately  prevailed.  Yet  the  change 
did  not  come  without  a  struggle.  In  Virginia,  the 
Baptists  petitioned  the  legislature  for  liberty  to  exist  as  a 
free  church,  that  is,  to  maintain  their  own  ministry,  observe 
their  practices,  and  be  exempt  from  taxation  for  the  sup- 
port   of    any   other   church.     This   was    in    1775.     The 


THE  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE  NATIONAL  ERA.  323 

Presbyterians  followed  with  a  similar  petition  and  were 
backed  by  the  Quakers.  But  it  took  several  years  before 
the  law  securing  the  desired  end  could  be  framed  and 
passed.  This  was  finally  done  in  1785  as  a  result  of  the 
exertions  of  Thomas  Jefferson.  The  other  States  followed 
the  example  of  Virginia,  though  it  was  more  than  half  a 
century  later  that  the  complete  change  from  state  to  free 
churches  could  be  made  in  some  instances. 

Since  the   adoption  by  the  Nation  of  the  free  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  established  system,  the  history  of  the 
Christian    Church    in    the    country    resolves 
Denomina-        itself  into  the  survcy  of  the  denominational  life 

tionahsm.  .  ,         -'     .         .  ^    _,     .      . 

of  the  various  denominations  or  Christians. 
The  Episcopal  Church    acquired  a  national  independ- 
ent existence   in  this  country   with  the    consent    of  the 
^,    ^  .        ,    Eng-lish  Parliament  in    1781;,   and  the  conse- 

The  Episcopal  ''.  ^     ,-,.,,.  ,.,,  .'     -^  ,         r>       n    /-n  1 

Church.  cration   of   William    White    (1748-1836)   and 

wSte^^Sea"bur;'.Samuel  Provost  (1742-180S),  in  1787,  as  bish- 
ops, respectively,  of  Philadelphia  and  New 
York.  The  previous  experiences  of  the  Church  were  dif- 
ferent in  the  different  regions  of  the  land.  In  Virginia 
and  Maryland,  and  the  settlements  emanating  from  these, 
it  was  the  state  Church.  In  New  York  it  became  the  es- 
tablished Church,  with  the  transfer  of  the  control  from  the 
Dutch  to  the  English.  In  New  England  it  was  barely 
tolerated.  By  dint  of  active  efforts,  however,  the  Church 
made  steady  progress  even  here.  In  1722,  Timothy  Cut- 
ler, president  of  Yale  College,  was  won  over  to  it,  and 
with  another  Congregational  minister — Samuel  Johnson — • 
made  the  journey  to  England  to  obtain  reordination  at  the 
hands  of  a  duly  consecrated  bishop  in  apostolic  succes- 
sion. 

During  the  War  of  Independence  the  Episcopal  Church 
suffered  more  than  any  other  Christian  church  in  the 
country,  because  so  many  of  its  clergy  were  loyalists  and 
out  of  sympathy  with  the  people  whom  they  served.  So 
strong  did  the  sentiment  grow  against  the  affiliation  with 
the  Anglican  Church,  that  when  the  war  was  ended  many 
were  thinking  of  establishing  an  independent  American 
Church  without  an  accredited  episcopacy.     But  this  dan- 


224  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

ger  was  averted  by  the  wise  management  of  Williami 
White.  At  the  same  time  the  extreme  High  Church 
party  had  secured  the  consecration  of  Samuel  Seabury 
(1729-1796)  as  bishop  of  Connecticut,  in  an  irregular  man- 
ner by  the  non-juring  bishops  of  Scotland,  and  in  spite  of 
the  refusal  of  Parliament  to  sanction  the  measure.  This 
step  created  other  complications,  out  of  which  the  good 
judgment  of  White  brought  the  Church  safely. 

The  prayer-book  of  the  Episcopal  Church  was  first  rad- 
ically revised  in  1785.  Later  there  was  a  return  to  a  more 
conservative  revision.  The  High  Church, 
Low  Church  Lqw  Church  and  Broad  Church  parties  of  the 
cwr"^  English  Church  have  naturally  had  their 
branches  on  this  side  also.  The  Broad  Church 
party  has  furnished  one  of  the  ablest  preachers  in  the 
land  in  the  person  of  the  late  bishop  Phillips  Brooks  of 
Massachusetts. 

The  most  important  event  in  the  life  of  Congregation- 
alism since  the  beginning  of  the  national  era  is  the  rise 
of  Unitarianism  within  it.     The  first  Unitarian 
RiseofUni-      church  in  America,  however,  was  drawn  from 
tanamsm.  ^^^^   Episcopalian    fold.      There  were,  indeed, 

many  Unitarians  in  New  England  before  the  date  of  the 
change  in  this  Episcopal  Church  (1785).  EbenezerGay, 
Charles  Chauncey,and  Jonathan  ISIayhew  held  to  Unitarian 
views,  but  they  enjoyed  the  fellowship  of  the  Trinitarian 
Congregationalists,  and  Unitarianism  had  no  separate 
denominational  life  until  James  Freeman  (1759-1835) 
renounced  his  belief  in  the  Trinity,  and  drew  his  church 
out  of  the  Episcopal  communion.  Joseph  Priestly  (1733- 
1804)  established  another  Unitarian  church  in  Philadel- 
phia, but  without  much  apparent  effect  in  the  way  of 
drawing  others  into  the  same  views.  It  was  otherwise  iii 
New  England.  The  organization  of  a  distinctively  Uni- 
tarian congregation  in  Boston  was  the  signal  for  a  conflict. 
Fuel  was  added  to  the  fire  by  the  appointment  of  Dr. 
Henry  Ware  to  the  professorship  of  theology  in  Harvard 
University  in  1805.  Jeremiah  Evarts  and  Professor 
Leonard  Woods  led  the  attack  in  behalf  of  the  Trinita- 
rians, and  William  E.  Channing  and  Henry  Ware  took  up 


THE  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE  NATIONAL  ERA.  325 

the  defense.  The  rupture  was  completed  by  the  refusal 
of  the  Trinitarians  to  hold  fellowship  with  the  Unitarians. 
Among  the  ablest  in  the  latter  body  have  been 
Channing.  William  E.  Channing  (1780-1842),  distin- 
guished for  his  noble  personal  character,  his 
moderation,  and  literary  style  ;  Theodore  Parker  (1810- 
1860),  also  a  master  of  style,  and  James  Freeman  Clarke. 
Unitarianism,  however,  proved  only  a  transitional  stage 
for  some  of  those  who  adopted  it.  The  denial  of  the 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  was  to  them  a  step 
^ism""^*"'  towards  the  denial  of  the  supernatural  origin 
of  historic  Christianity.  But  as  they  were  un- 
willing to  reject  the  moral  and  religious  ideas  of  the 
Christian  system,  they  took  the  position  that  historic  facts 
are  of  no  consequence  as  a  basis  of  religion.  Ideas 
are  the  all-essential  elements  and  these  transcend  facts. 
From  this  the  movement  was  called  Transcendentalism. 
Its  originator  was  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  (1803-1882), 
who,  as  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  associated  with  Henry 
Ware.  He  found  himself  out  of  sympathy  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  denomination,  and  left  its  ministry  in  order 
the  more  freely  to  propagate  his  views  through  the 
medium  of  literature.  A  group  of  bright  intellects  joined 
Emerson  to  form  the  Concord  School  of  Philosoph)% 
but  the  older  Unitarians,  like  Channing  and  Ware, 
opposed  Transcendentalism. 

Trinitarian  Congregationalism,  in  the  meantime  starting 
on  the  basis  of  the  Calvinism  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  built 
on  it  the  New  England  theology.  The 
Theoio^/"  special  features  of  this  system  were  the  denial 
of  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin  to  his  pos- 
terity, the  teaching  that  man  is  born  with  a  depraved 
nature,  which  may  be  called  sinful  because  it  inevitably 
leads  to  sin,  but  is  not  itself  the  ground  of  condemnation, 
as  only  a  voluntary  act  can  be  such  ground,  the  doctrine 
of  moral  inability  in  place  of  natural  inability  of  the 
sinner  to  do  good,  and  a  universal  atonement.  Samuel 
Hopkins  (1721-1803),  a  pupil  of  Edwards,  asserted  most 
emphatically  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  of  election  and  the 
sovereignty  of  God.     He   reduced   all  sin   to    sellishness 


326  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

and  placed  repentance  at  the  beginning  of  all  good. 
Without  it  no  one  can  perform  any  good  deed.  He 
further  made  conversion  the  unconditional  surrender  or 
resignation  of  the  will  to  God.  I'he  younger  Edwards 
(1740-1801)  adopted  the  Grotian  theory  of  the  atone- 
ment. Nathaniel  Emmons  (1745-1840)  elaborated  Kop- 
kinsianism  in  a  pantheistic  tendency  and  offended  many 
moderate  theologians.  Joseph  Bellamy  (1719-1790) 
attempted  to  solve  the  problem  of  evil  by  asserting  that 
evil  is  the  means  of  the  greatest  good.  Timothy  Dwight 
(1752-1817)  opposed  some  of  the  more  striking  features 
of  New  England  theology,  and  stood  on  more  moderate 
Calvinistic  ground.  Nathaniel  W.  Taylor  (1786-1858) 
passed  over  to  semi-Pelagian  ground  and  was  opposed  by 
Bennet  Tyler  (1783-1858),  an  adherent  of  the  covenant 
theology.  Finally  Horace  Bushnell  (1802-1876)  elabo- 
rated with  great  literary  taste  the  moral  theory  of 
the  Atonement,  and  the  Oberlin  theologians,  Asa  Ma- 
han  and  Gharles  G.  Finney,  taught  Christian  perfec- 
tionism. 

The    Congregational    churches    have   been    active    in 
foreign  missionary  work,  especially  since  the  opening  of 

the  present  century.  In  conjunction  with 
Missions  of  many  Presbyterian  churches,  they  founded  the 
tionfiisfs^.  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 

Missions  in  1810.  This  organization  has  been 
instrumental  in  the  complete  Christianization  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  and  in  the  spread  of  the  gospel  among  the 
native  Indians  as  well  as  abroad  in  China  and  Japan, 
in  Syria,  in  Turkey  and  elsewhere. 

During  the  whole  of  the  colonial  period  the  Baptists 
were    proscribed    and     persecuted    through     the    larger 

portion  of  the  country.  Roger  Williams 
Baptists.  (1606-1683)     is    generally    regarded    as    the 

founder  of  the  denomination  in  America,  and 
it  is  true  that  he  was  rebaptized  as  an  adult  and  opened 
a  refuge,  so  to  speak,  for  Baptists  when  he  founded  the 
colony  of  Providence ;  but  he  did  not  continue  to  hold 
fellowship  with  them  to  the  end.  In  Massachusetts,  Oba- 
diah  Holmes  was  publicly  whipped  for  preaching  against 


THE  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE  NATIONAL  ERA.  327 

infanl  baptism  in  165 1  at  Boston.  In  New  York,  Baptists 
were  liable  to  fine,  imprisonment,  and  banishment.  They 
were  somewhat  more  mildly  treated  in  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land and  South  Carolina.  During  the  War  of  Indepen- 
dence they  were  stanch  supporters  of  independence,  and 
soon  after  the  end  of  the  war  they  obtained  the  free- 
dom of  conscience  for  which  they  had  struggled  so 
long,  and  entered  on  a  career  of  growth  and  earnest 
activity. 

They  have  been   distinguished   for   missionary  labors, 
inferior  in    their  extent  and  success  to  those   of  no  other 

denomination.  '^J'heir  missionary  society,  The 
Missions.  American   Baptist  Union,  has  a  larger  roll  of 

communing  converts  than  any  other  mission- 
ary association.  The  accession  of  Adoniram  Judson 
(i 788-1850)  to  the  denomination  after  he  had  sailed  as  a 
missionary  to  Burmah,  had  no  doubt  a  stimulating  effect 
on  the  zeal  of  all  Baptists  in  this  direction.  When  they 
insisted  on  translating  the  words  '■^  baptizo"  and  '■'^  bap- 
tis??ia  "  by  "  immerse  "  and  "  immersion  "  in  the  Bibles  to 
be  used  by  their  converts  in  the  new  fields,  the  Bible 
society  declined  to  circulate  these  translations,  and  they 
organized  their  own  Baptist  Bible  society. 

The   Baptist   denomination,  holding  as   it  does  to  the 
Independent   or   Congregational   form   of  polity,  has  not 

been  particularly  subject  to  disruption.  And 
Campbeiiites.    yet  it  has  had  onc  important  schism  within  it, 

owing  to  the  propagation  of  some  peculiar 
views  by  Alexander  Campbell  (1788-1855).  Campbell 
taught  that  regeneration  is  effected  by  the  Word,  that 
is,  the  truth  presented  in  the  Scriptures,  through  which 
alone  the  Holy  Spirit  exercises  his  influence.  In  bap- 
tism the  regeneration  of  the  Christian  is  completed  by 
his  personal  acceptance  and  justification  in  the  presence 
of  God.  No  human  creed  should  be  imposed  or  sub- 
milted  to.  Campbell  and  the  Campbeiiites  were  ex- 
cluded from  fellowship  by  the  Baptists  in  1827  and  have 
had  a  separate  existence  ever  since. 

Among  those  who  came  from    England  in    the   earliest 
colonies  there  were  many  who  preferred  the  Presbyterian 


328  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

polity  to  the  Independent.     These,  however,  did  not  in- 
sist on   their    preferences,  but    acquiesced  in 
Presbyterians     tj-^g  prevailing  Sentiment  favoring  Congrega- 

in  New  Eng-  .         \.  01  t-.i- 

land.  tionansm.       ho  also  those  Presbyterians  who 

came  later  into  New  England  in  large 
numbers,  according  to  Cotton  Mather's  testimony,  from 
Scotland  and  the  north  of  Ireland,  found  it  a  compara- 
tively easy  task  to  adopt  the  Congregationalism  of  New 
England.  They  were  also  evidently  allowed  to  exert 
some  influence  in  modifying  Congregationalism,  as  during 
the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century  this  system  under- 
went a  marked  change  approaching  Presbyterianism. 
But  with  a  wave  of  reaction  there  was  a  return  to  a  more 
rigid  independency. 

The  Presbyterians  who  settled  in   Virginia  were  sub- 
jected to  persecution   and  were   obliged  to  remove   into 

Maryland.  It  was  into  this  region  that  about 
Makemie.         the  closing  years   of  the  seventeenth  century 

Francis  Makemie  came  from  Donegal  in 
Ireland  (1683).  His  tireless  zeal  and  energy  resulted  in 
a  large  increase  in  numbers  and  the  consolidation  of  the 
Presbyterian  elements,  so  that  in  1705  a  presbytery  was 
organized  in  Philadelphia — the  first  on  the  continent. 
Eleven  years  later,  the  presbytery  grew  into  a  synod. 
In  order  the  better  to  maintain  its  order  and  doctrine, 
the  synod  passed  an  act  in  1729  making  the  West- 
minster Confession  its  authoritative  creed.  But  as  there 
was  a  large  element  opposed  to  the  strict  construction  of 
this  Confession  it  was  stipulated  that  assent  should  not 
be  required  to  articles  "  not  essential  and  necessary  to 
doctrine,  worship,  and  government." 

The  question  of  the  kind  of  education  to  be  given  the 
ministry,  combined  with  the  question    of   the    status   of 

revivalists  in  the  Church  and  their  relation  to 

Disruption  of       .  i  i  •     •    i  j  i  ^ 

•745-I758-  ^"^  regular  ministry,  produced  a  controversy 
early  in  the  history  of  American  Presbyterian- 
ism. William  Tennent  (1673-1746)  established  a  college 
at  Neshaminy,  some  twenty  miles  north  of  Philadelphia, 
known  as  the  Log  College.  In  connection  with  this  in- 
stitution his  two  sons,  Gilbert  and  William,  labored  also 


THE  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE  NATIONAL  ERA.  329 

as  preachers,  joining  Whitefield  in  his  evangelistic  work. 
These  evangelists  made  statements  in  the  course  of  their 
ministrations   v,hich    were    construed   by  the   more    con- 
servative Presbyterians  as  meaning  that  regeneration  was 
to  be  tested  by  one's  emotions.     They  were  further  con- 
sidered to  be  the  supporters  of  a  new  order  of  itineratino-, 
and,  in  most  cases,  uneducated   and   unauthorized   min- 
istry.    For  these  reasons  they  were  denominated   "  New 
Lights  "  or  "  the  New  Side  "  while  their  opponents  were 
called  "  Old  Lights  "  or  "  the  Old  Side."'     The  discussion 
ultimately  issued  in  a  disruption  in    which   the    "  New 
Side ''  was  organized  into  the  synod  of  New  York,  em- 
bracing, however,  Princeton  College   and  a  part  of  Penn- 
sylvania.    The  schism  lasted  thirteen  years  (1745-1758). 
The  Presbyterian  Church  in  America  assumed  national 
proportions,  when,  in  1788,  the  General  Assembly  was  or- 
ganized.    In     1801    a    Plan    of    Union    was 
Di^sruption  of     adopted      between     Congregationalists     and 
Presbyterians,  for  the  sake  of  cooperation  in 
the  home  and  foreign  mission  fields.     This  was  an  ao-ree- 
ment,  according  to  which    ministers  of  one  denomination 
could  labor  with  the  approval  of  the  other,  holding  them- 
selves  responsible  to   the    government  of  their   own   de- 
nomination, but  admitting  the  other  to  legal  standing  in 
cases  where  the  other  had   a  legal  interest.     The  plan 
worked  favorably  to   Presbyterianism  as  far   as  growth  in 
numbers    was  concerned.      Most   of   the   new   churches 
organized  on  the  home  mission  field  were  absorbed  by 
the    Presbyterian    Church.     But    this    numerical    growth 
was    counterbalanced    by    a  decrease   in    strictness    of 
government.      Many  of  the  newly  received  churches  and 
ministers    were    not    Presbyterian   by   conviction.       I'he 
Presbyterians  of  the  older  school  looked  on  this  growing 
laxity   with  anxiety.     When  Hopkinsianism  and  the  New 
England  theology  in  general  began  to   spread    within  the 
denomination,  two  parties  became  distinctly  visible ;   the 
"  Old  School,"  consisting   of  those  who  adhered   to   the 
Scotch  Calvinistic  system,  and  the  "  New  School,"  embrac- 
ing those  who   believed  in   the   new  views,  together  with 
those  who  would  allow  such  to   remain  in  the  fellowship 


330  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

of  the  Church.  The  controversy  was  complicated  by 
differences  as  to  the  administration  of  the  missionary 
work.  The  Old  School  sentiment  expressed  itself  vehe- 
mently. The  attempt  was  made  to  restrict  the  growth 
of  looseness  by  ecclesiastical  trials,  notably  those  of 
Albert  Barnes  in  1830,  and  Lyman  Beecher  in  1835. 
Finally,  the  Old  school  party,  having  obtained  the  majority 
in  1837,  exscinded  three  synods  in  New  York  and  one  in 
Ohio.  The  minority  organized  into  the  New  School 
Presbyterian  Church,  These  two  bodies  remained  sepa- 
rate until  1870,  when  they  reunited  on  the  basis  of  the 
standards  pure  and  simple. 

The   subject  of  the    education  of  the  ministry  led   to 
another  agitation,  ending  in  a  disruption  in  18 10.     When 

the  great  revival  of  1797-1803  reached  Ken- 
PresbytlrLliism.tucky,  the  growth  by  accession  of  conversions 

was  so  rapid  that  educated  ministers  could 
not  be  provided  for  all  the  churches.  The  Presbytery  of 
Cumberland  met  the  difficulty  by  ordaining  men  who 
could  not  meet  the  educational  requirements  of  the 
Church.  For  this  step  the  synod  of  Kentucky  dissolved 
this  presbytery  in  1806.  After  waiting  for  a  change  of 
base  on  the  part  of  the  synod,  the  Presbytery  of  Cumber- 
land was  re-organized  by  Finis  Ewing,  Samuel  King  and 
Samuel  McAdow  in  1810.  As  the  synod  and  General 
Assembly  declined  to  recognize  this  presbytery,  it  existed 
independently,  and  took  the  name  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Cluirch,  revising  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion and  modifying  its  Calvinism. 

The  question  of  slavery  led  to  another  division.     The 
New    School    presbyteries    of    the    slave-holding   states 

seceded  from  the  New  School  Assembly  in 
Churdr  1857.     The  Old  School    presbyteries  in    the 

same  region  left  the  Old  School  Assembly  in 
1861.  Two  years  later  these  presbyteries  united  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  this  Church  is  that  the  Church,  as  a 
purely  spiritual  institution,  must  abstain  from  legislation 
with  reference  to  political  questions. 

Presbyterianism  has  taken  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 


THE  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE  NATIONAL  ERA. 


33^ 


active  work  of  evangelizing  the  heatlien  tlirough  its  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions.  It  has  contributed  also 
M?ssions"^"  largely  to  all  inter-denominational  under- 
takings for  the  advancement  of  temperance 
and  peace.  It  has  been  prominent  in  educational  work 
through  Princeton  College  and  the  numerous  institutions 
of  the  same  type  throughout  the  land.  It  has  planted 
theological  seminaries  in  Princeton,  Auburn,  New  York 
(Union),  Allegheny,  Cincinnati  (Lane),  Chicago  (McCor- 
niick),  San  Francisco,  and  latest  of  all  at  Omaha.  It  has 
furnished  to  American  scholarship  the  eminent  names 
of  Edward  Robinson,  Moses  Stuart,  Charles  and  A.  A. 
Hodge,  Archibald  Alexander  and  his  sons,  James  W. 
and  Joseph  Addison  Alexander,  Henry  B.  Smith,  W.  G. 
T.  Shedd,  Philip  Schaff  and  James  McCosh,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  those  still  living. 

The  Reformed  Churches,  both   Dutch  and  German,  re- 
mained associated  with  the  synods  in  the  Old  World,  from 
which  they   had  proceeded.     The  Dutch   Kt- 
DutchandGer-  formed  Church  began  to  organize  itself  early, 

man  Keiormed    ,  r      i  •  •  11 

Churches.  but  on  accouut  of  disscusious  was  unable  to 
complete  its  organization  until  1770.  The 
German  Reformed  held  its  synod  first  in  1747.  Its 
founder  was  Michael  Schlatter.  Both  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  were  based  on  the  Heidelberg  Catechism. 
The  Dutch  Church  has  the  honor  of  having  established 
the  first  theological  seminary  in  the  country,  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  connection  afterwards  with  Rutgers 
College. 

The  straggling  beginnings  of  Lutheranism  were  brought 
together  and  compacted  by  Henry  Melchior  Muhlenberg, 
who  came  from  Halle  in  1742.  His  work  at 
Lutherans.  flj-gt  consisted  in  organizing  churches  and  se- 
curing ministers  for  them,  whom  he  found  for 
the  most  part  in  Halle.  Thus  the  spirit  of  pietism  was 
infused  in  a  large  measure  into  the  nascent  Lutheranism 
of  America.  The  first  Synod  was  held  in  Philadelphia 
in  1748.  In  1820  the  Church  had  grown  large  enough 
to  warrant  the  formation  of  an  independent  General  Synod 
of  American  Lutherans.     The  unity  of  this  body  has  been 


^32  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

twice  rent ;  first,  by  the  secession  of  the  General  Council 
in  1866,  on  the  ground  of  laxity  in  adherence  to  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  ;  and  second,  by  the  formation,  in  1872, 
of  the  Lutheran  Synodical  Conference  on  a  stricter  basis 
than  even  the  General  Council.  These  three  branches 
are  nearly  equal  in  strength. 

Methodism,  as  has  been  already  noted,  arose  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  preaching  of  Wesley  in  England  in  the  middle 

of  the  eighteenth  century.  Soon  after  its  origin 
Methodism.       it  vvas  brought  over  into  the  American  colonies 

by  Philip  Embury,  Barbara  Heck,  and  Thomas 
Webb  (1760).  Webb,  a  military  man,  threw  his  whole 
energy  into  the  movement  of  propagating  the  evangelical 
views  which  he  had  found  to  be  saving  truth  in  his  own 
experience.  His  labors  were  soon  shared  by  Francis 
Asbury  and  Thomas  Rankin.  Asbury  especially  led 
Methodism  through  the  crisis  of  the  Revolution,  and 
when  that  crisis  was  passed,  the  new  Church  was  organized 
(1784)  by  the  appointment  and  ordination  of  Thomas 
Coke  as  bishop,  and  Richard  Whatcoat  and  Thomas 
Vasey  as  elders.  A  conference  was  held  at  the  end  of 
the  same  year,  presided  over  by  Bishop  Coke,  at  which 
a  doctrinal  standard  was  adopted,  consisting  of  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  the  name  of  the 
Church  was  fixed  as  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

The  Church  thus  organized  entered  upon  a  marvelous 
career  of  prosperity  and  usefulness.     It  has  outstripped 

its  sister  denominations  in  point  of  numbers 
Divisions.  and  infused  enthusiasm  and  warmth  into  all. 

It  has,  however,  like  them,  been  called  upon 
to  suffer  from  schism.  In  1830  the  Methodist  Protestant 
broke  off  on  the  question  of  lay  representation.  The 
question  of  slavery  next  became  the  ground  of  a 
split  in  1844,  when  the  Wesleyan  Church  of  America 
was  organized  on  the  basis  of  the  toleration  of  slavery. 
The  next  year  another  division  of  Methodism  ap- 
peared on  a  local  line  of  separation  in  the  Methodist 
Church. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  regarded  with  pecul- 
iar  aversion    and   even    dread  by  the   colonists    almost 


THE  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA  DURING  THE  NATIONAL  ERA. 


333 


throughout  the  whole  country.     Pennsylvania  was,  perhaps, 

the    solitary  exception   to   the  rule,  and   even 

V^?<  '^""!^K     u  here   their    rights    were    only    nominally   con- 

Cathokc  Church  o  -'  ^jr     v^v. 

ceded  to  them.  After  the  war  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, however,  a  change  took  place.  The  Continental 
Congress  in  1774  abolished  their  disabilities  in  national 
politics.  The  individual  States  confirmed  this  action, 
one  by  one.  Maryland  was  the  first  to  enfranchise 
Roman  Catholics. 

Prominent  among  the  Catholic  clergy  was  John  Carroll, 
a  cousin  of  Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton,  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
John  Carroll.  He  was  born  in  Maryland  in  1735,  was  edu- 
cated in  the  college  of  St.  Omer,  in  French 
Flanders,  and  at  the  Jesuit  College  at  Liege,  where  he 
was  ordained  priest  in  1759.  Until  J  771  he  was  Professor 
of  Moral  Philosophy  at  St.  Omer.  \\hen  the  Society  of 
Jesus  was  suppressed  in  1773,  he  was  forced  to  leave  the 
Continent  and  went  to  England.  In  1774  he  returned  to 
Maryland.  During  the  war  of  the  Revolution  he  rendered 
important  services  in  the  cause  of  American  Independ- 
ence. In  1789,  he  was  appointed  the  first  Catholic 
bishop  in  the  United  States,  with  his  see  in  Baltimore.  He 
wasconsecratedin  London, andreturned  immediately  to  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  his  office.  In  1808  he  was  made  arch- 
bishop. His  diocese  then  embraced  Maryland,  Virginia, 
and  the  Southern  States  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Mississippi  River.  Devout,  learned,  patriotic,  and  elo- 
quent, he  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors  of  his  Church 
in  this  country.  He  directed  his  energies  to  the  training  of 
a  clergy,  the  building  of  churches,  the  founding  of  Com- 
munities called  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the  education  of 
the  people;  all  of  which  measures  helped  to  put  the 
Church  on  a  sound  footing  and  to  promote  its  growth. 
Accessions  by  purchase  and  concessions  of  large  terri- 
tories occupied  by  Catholics,  and  by  immigration  from 
Europe,  have  given  the  Church  the  app:iarance  of  enor- 
mous growth.  It  has  had  to  contend  against  difficulties 
both  inherent  in  its  system,  and  in  the  zeal  of  Protestants 
against  it ;  but  it  has  also  enjoyed  the  counsel  of  moder- 


334 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


ate  and  wise  men  like  Archbishop  Hughes  (i 798-1864) 
and  Cardinal  McCloskey  (1810-1885),  not  to  mention 
distinguished  prelates  still  living. 

The   Universalists,    though    originating    in  Wales,  have 
had  a  church  life  on  this  continent  alone.     John  Murray, 

who  took  his  views  from  James  Relly,  in 
Universalists.     London,  about    the  middle   of  the   eighteenth 

century,  brought  Universalism  to  these  shores 
in  1770.  The  original  Church  in  Old  England  died  out, 
but  the  offshoot  in  New  England  flourished.  The  first 
Universalist  church  was  organized  in  1779  by  Murray. 
His  labors  were  abundant  and  lasted  until  18 15.  His 
work  was  taken  up  and  carried  on  by  Ballou  and  others 
with  a  moderate  amount  of  success. 


INDEX. 


Abelard,  175. 

Acolytes,  61. 

Adiaphoristic  Controversy,  248. 

Adoptionism,  127. 

Agape,  2S,  42,  64. 

Albertus  JMagmis,  177. 

Albigensians,  Albegensian  Crusade,  16S. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  177. 

Alexandrian  influence  on  Judaism,  15. 

Alexandrian  School  of  Christian  thought, 

53- 
Alogi,  57. 

Ambrose,  of  Milan,  85. 
Amyraldian  Theologj',  271. 
Anabaptists,  216,  254. 
Auomceans  (Arians;  8. 
Anselm,  of  Canterbury,  175. 
Ansgar,  missionary  to  Scandinavia,  137. 
Anthony  the  Eremite,  68. 
Antinomianism,  247. 
Antioch,  first  center  of  missionary  effort, 

22,  3'-   . 
ApoUinaris,  Apollinarianism,  89. 
Apollonius  of  Tyana,  46,  47. 
Apologists,  37. 
Apostles'  Creed,  57. 
Apostles,  traditions  of,  25. 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  63. 
Apostolic  Fathers,  35  ff. 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  177,  200. 
Arius,  Arianism,  83  ff. 
Arminius,  Arminianism,  250,  251,  284. 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  159. 
Artemon,  58. 
Aristides,  apologist,  37. 
Asceticism,  67. 

Athenagoras,  the  apologist,  38. 
Athanasius,  84. 

Augsburg  Confession,  204,  247. 
Augsburg,  Peace  of,  209. 
Augustinanism.  95  ff.144,  257. 
Augustine,  bishop  of  Hippo,   94,  95,  103, 

Augustine,  missionary  to  Bntain,  122. 

Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Papacy,  181. 
Bacon  Roger,  17S. 


Baptism,  in  the  primitive  Church,  28  ;  in 

the  .Ante-Nicene  Church,  65. 
Baptists  in  America,  326. 
Bar-Cochba,  32. 
Bardesanes,  41. 
Barnabas,  Epistle  of,  36. 
Basil  the  Great,  86,   104. 
Basilides,  Gnostic  leader,  40. 
Becket,  Thomas  A.,  160. 
Bede,  the  Venerable,  123. 
Belgic  Confession,  252. 
Benedict  of  Nursia,  105,  154. 
Berengarius,  147,  174. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  166,  171,  175,  176. 
Beryl  of  Bostra,  55,  59. 
Beza,  Theodore,  232. 
Bible,  Authorized  Version  of,  240. 
Bible  Societies,  294,  307,  327. 
Biel,  Gabriel,  189. 
Boethius,  94. 
Bogoniiles,  i6g. 
Bonaventura,  177. 

Boniface,  missionary  to  Germany,  124. 
Boniface  VIII.,  pope,  180  ff.,  193. 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  214,  324. 
Book  of  .Sports,  241. 
Broad  Church  party,  302,  303,  324. 
Byzantine  empire  fall  of,  108,  185. 
Byzantium,  transfer  of  empire  to,  84. 

Caedmon,  123. 
Calixtine  Controversy,  265. 
Calvinism,  five  points  of,  251  ;  controver- 
sies regarding,  282  ff. 
Calvin,  John.  215  ff. 
Cambridge  Platform,  315. 
Cambridge  Platouists,  279. 
Cameron,  Richard,  Cameronians,  268, 300. 
Campbellites,  326. 
Caraffa.  Cardinal,  221. 
Carlstadt,  201,  203. 
Carpocrates,  Gnostic  leader,  40. 
Carroll,  John,   333. 
Carthusians,  172. 
Catacombs,  67. 

Catholic  .\i)ostolic  Church,  304. 
Celsus,  45. 

335 


336 


INDEX. 


Chalcedon,  Council  of,  91. 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  300,  307,  308. 

Channing,  W.  E.,  324,  325. 

Charlemagne,  116,  120.  126,  127,  137. 

Charles  I.,  of  England,  241. 

Charles  II.  of  England,  256. 

Charles  V.,  emperor,  203,  212,  229. 

Charles  Martel,  113,  120. 

Chiliasm,  59. 

Christian,  origin  of  name,  21. 

Christianity,  preparation  for,  1 1  ff .,  spread 
of,  44,  45,  made  the  state  religion,  70. 

Christianization  of  Bohemia,  141  ;  of  Den- 
mark, 13S;  of  Magj'ars,  143;  of  Mo- 
ravia, 140;  of  Norway,  140  ;  of  Poland, 
141  ;  of  Russia,  142;  of  Sweden,  138. 

Chrysostom,  John,  88. 

Church,  conceptions  of,  6;  visible  and 
invisible,  7  ;  founding  of,  17  ;  organiza- 
tion, 20  ;  distinguished  from  Judaism, 
2S,  32  ;  polity  of,  26 ;  Catholic,  recog- 
nized, 41 ;  music  of,  130. 

Cistercians,  171. 

Claudius  Apollinaris,  37. 

Clementine  Literature,  39. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  53. 

Clement  of  Rome,  35. 

Clergy,  lower,  61,  79;  laws  regarding, 
i2q;  marriage  of,  62,  80,  156;  new 
functions  of,  78,  79  ;  support  of,  62. 

Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  76. 

Cocceius,  Cocceians,  270. 

Code  of  Vinea,  162. 

CoHgny,  Gaspard  de,  admiral,  231  ff. 

Columba,  missionary  to  Scotland,  77. 

Columbanus,  missionary  to  Gaul,  124. 

Constantine,  70  ff. 

Councils,  ecumenical.  So ;  of  Basel,  184; 
of  Chalcedon,  91  ;  of  Constance,  184, 
195;  of  Constantinople,  the  first,  87; 
the  second,  92;  the  third,  114;  of 
Ephesus,  90,  96;  Lateran  first,  15S; 
Lateran  second,  159;  Lateran  third, 
160;  Lateran  fourth,  161,  162  :  Lateran 
fifth,  187  ;  of  Lyons,  the  first,  162  ;  the 
second,  163  ;  of  Nicsa,  the  first,  83  ff.  : 
the  second,  i  ift  :  of  Pisa,  183  ;  of  Trent, 
222  ;  of  the  Vatican,  295  ;  the  Quini- 
sext,  114. 

Counter-Reformation,  219. 

Covenanters,  268. 

Covenant,  the,  243,  246,  252. 

Covenant  theologi,',  270. 

Cranmer,  Archbishop,  213,  214,  237. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  243,  267. 

Crusades,  165  ff.,  186. 

Crj'pto-Calvinism,  249. 

Cumberland  Presbyterians,  330. 

Cyprian,  52,  60,  64. 

Deaconesses,  6. 

Deacons,  appointed,   20 ;  permanent  or- 
der, 27,  42,  60. 
Deism,  in  Great  Britain,  274  ;  in  France, 


276 ;   in   Germany,   277 ;    in   America, 

321. 
Diaspora  (Dispersion),  15. 
Diognetus,  Letter  to,  37. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  56. 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  93. 
Doellinger,  Ignatius,  296. 
Dominicans,  order  of  monks,  172. 
Donatists  and  Donatist  Schism,  103  ff. 
Dorotheus,  52. 
Don,  Synod  of,  251,  252. 
Do^itheus,  heresiarch,  30,  40. 
Dutch  Republic,  rise  of,  231. 

Ebionites,  38. 

Eckart,  Meister,  189. 

Edvi-ard  VL,  of  England,  214. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  318. 

Elipandus,  of  Toledo,  127. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  237,  243. 

Elkesaites,  38. 

Epiphanius,  87,  100,  loi. 

Episcopal  Church  in  America,  323. 

Erasmus,  192,  205. 

Erigena,  John  Scotus,  145. 

Essenes,  14. 

Euchetje,  74. 

Eusebius,  of  Cisarea.  71,  84,  loi. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  84. 

Eutyches,  Eutychianism,  90. 

Evangelical  Alliance,  308. 

Excommunication.   28,   63,    103,    153;  of 

Luther,  201  ;  of  Doellinger,  296. 
Exorcists,  in  the  early  Church,  61. 

Farel,  William,  French  reformer,  215. 

Felicissimus,  schism  of,  64. 

Felix  of  Urgel,  127. 

Feudal  system,  134. 

Flacius,  Flacianism,  249. 

Formula  of  Concord,  249. 

Fortunatus.  schismatic,  69. 

Fox,  CSeorge,  281. 

Franciscans,  order  of  monks,  173. 

Francis  of  Assissi,  173. 

Francis  of  Sales,  260. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  262. 

Fraticelli,  173. 

Frederick  Barbarossa,  159. 

Frederick  II..  emperor.  161. 

Free  Church  of  .Scotland,  300. 

French  Revolution,  religious  bearings  of, 

2S7  ff. 
"  Friends  of  God     sect,  190. 
Friends,  Society  of,  281,  312,  314  ff. 
Fronto,  early   opponent   of  Christianity, 

45- 

Gaius,  51. 

Galilean  Confessions,  250. 
Galilean  Question,  256. 
Gallieuus,  emperor,  toleration    of  Chris- 
tians, 49. 


INDEX. 


331 


Gentiles,  first  preaching  to,  21;  question 

concerning  converts,  22. 
Gilbert  of  Porree,  175. 
Gnosticism,  39  ff.  opposition  to,  in  the 

early  Church,  51. 
Golden  Bull.  1S2. 
Gottschalk,  144  fE. 
Gregor\'  of  Nazianzus,  86. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  86. 
Gregory  of  Tours,  76. 
Gregory   I.,  pope  (the    Great)  118,   122, 

128,  130. 
Gregory    VII.,   (Hildebrand)    136,     147, 

156,  167. 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  56. 
Gregory,  the  Illuminator,  74. 
Guelph  and  Ghibelline  feud,  159  ff. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  235,  255. 

Hadrian,  emperor,  34. 

Half-way  Covenant,  316. 

Heathenism  suppressed,  73. 

Hegesippus,  51. 

Heidelberg  Catechism,  250. 

Helvetic  Confession,  250. 

Helvidius,  \\e\v  of  the  virginity  of  Mary, 

100. 
Henry   IV.,    emperor,    and   Hildebrand, 

157,  158. 

Henry  VIII.,  of  England,  204,  212. 

Henry  of  Navarre,  233. 

Hermas,  36. 

Hierocles,  early  opponent  of  Christianity, 

47- 
Hilary  of  Poictiers,  86. 
Hildebrand,  (pope  Gregory  VII.),    136, 

147,  156,  165. 
Hippolytus,  51,  59,  63. 
History,  definition  of,  5,6;  advantages  of 

the    study   of,   8 ;    periods  of,  9,   10 ; 

sacred  and  secular,  7. 
Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor,  269. 
Holy  Alliance,  290. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  founded,  121 ;  dis- 
solved, 255. 
Homoioousianism  and   Homoousianism, 

85. 
Hopkins,   Samuel    and    Hopkinsianism, 

326. 
Huguenots,  231  ff.,  310. 
Huss,  John,  184,  195. 
Hutchinson,    Anne,    Hutchinsonianism, 

318. 
Hypatia,  73. 
Hypsistarians,  74. 

Ignatius,  Epistles  of,  36 ;  martyrdom  of, 

34-  . 

Image-worship,  controversies  regarding, 

115  ff.,  223. 
Independency,     Independents,    238    ff., 

267,311. 
Index  E xpur gator ius,  224. 
Indulgences,  193,  199,  205,  223. 


Inner  Light,  doctrine  of,  281. 
Innocent  III.,  pope,  160. 
Inquisition,  194,  223,  224. 
Interdict,  153,  defined,  153;  imposed  on 
Rome,  159;  imposed  on  Florence,  224. 
Investiture,  Controversy  over,  17  ff. 
Irenaeus,  51. 
Irving,  Edward,  394. 
Isidore  of  Seville,  126. 
Isidorian  decretals,  132. 

Jacobites,  93. 

James  the  Apostle,  24. 

James  I.,  of  England,  239,  245. 

Jansen,  Jansenism,  257,  ff. 

Jerome,  Church  Father,  87,  100. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  195,  196. 

Jerusalem,  Assembly  at,  23  ;  fall  of,  26, 
32- 

Jesuits,  225  ff.,  257,  258,  260,  294,  298,310. 

Joanna,  alleged  female  pope,  133. 

John  of  Damascus,  115. 

John  the  Apostle,  later  life  of,  25. 

John  XII.,  pope,  134. 

John  XXIIL,  pope,  184. 

Jovian,  emperor,  72. 

Judaism,  development  of,  after  the  Baby- 
lonian Captivity,  13  ;  political  history 
of,  16,  17;  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 

32- 

Julian  of  Eclanum,  97. 
Julian  the  Apostate,  71. 
Julius  Africanus,  52. 
Justinian,  emperor,  13,  926. 
Justin,  Martyr,  Apologies  of,  37  ;  death  of, 
35- 

Keltic  Church  in  Great  Britain,  76,  122. 

Kempis,  Thomas  4,  190. 

Kenotic  Controversy,  265. 

Kentigem,  missionary  to  Scotland,  77. 

Knox,  John,  243  ff. 

Koran,  The,  112. 

Kultur-Kampf,  the,  297. 

Lanfranc,  of  Bee,  147. 

Latitudinarianism,  279. 

Laud,  -Archbishop,  241. 

Leo  I.,  pope,  82,  91. 

Leo  III.,  pope,  121. 

Leo  Isauricus,  emperor,  115. 

Leo  X.,  pope,  187,  199. 

Leo  XIII.,  pope,  297. 

Libanius,  rhetorician  and  opponent  of 
Christianity,  73. 

Lombard,  Peter,  176. 

Louis  IX.,  of  France,  163. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  226. 

Lucar,  Cyril,  236. 

Lucian,  of  Antioch,  42. 

Lucian,  of  Samosata,  45. 

Luther,  Martin,  early  life  of,  200;  ap- 
pearance as  a  reformer,  201 ;  excom- 


33^ 


INDEX. 


munication  of.  201 ;  marriage  of,  204 ; 
controversies  of,  204,  205  ;  death  of,  208. 
Lutheranism,   262   if.,  299 ;  in   America, 
331- 

Macedonius,  Macedonianisra,  86. 

Magna  Charta,  161. 

IVIakemie,  PVancis,  328. 

Mani,  Manichaism,  68  ff. 

Marcion,  Gnostic  leader,  41. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  emperor,  34. 

Maro,  Maronites,  115. 

Marsilius,  of  Padua,  188. 

Mary  of  England,  ("  Bloody  "  Mary)  237. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  244. 

Mathers,  the.  in  New  England,  317,  320. 

Melanchthon,  202,  207,  208,  247. 

Melanchtonians,  248. 

Meletius,  64. 

Melito,  of  Sardis,  38. 

Melkizedekians,  58. 

Melville,  Andrew,  245. 

Menander,  heresiarch,  30,  40. 

Menno,  Mennonites,  254. 

Mesrob,  75. 

Methodism  in  the  United  States,  332. 

Methodius,  missionary  to  the  Slavs,  140  £f. 

Methodius,  of  Olympus.  56. 

Minorites,  (Fraticelli)  173. 

Missions,  modem,  origin  of,  304   ff.  ;  in 

America,  320,  326,  327. 
Mohammed,  Mohammedanism,  iioff. 
Molina,  Luis,  257. 
Monarchianism,  57. 
Monasticism,  104,  154,  171. 
Monophysitism,  91  ff. 
Monothelitism,  113  ff. 
Montanism,  42,  43. 
Moravian  Brethren,  263,  283. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  issued,  253 ;  revoked, 
270. 

Narses,  75. 

Nazarenes,  38. 

Nestorius,  Nestorianism,  89  ff. 

Newman,  Cardinal  J.  H.,  303. 

New  Testament,  writing  of,  29;  recogni- 
tion of  as  a  part  of  the  Canon,  1^6,  57. 

Neo-Platonism,  46. 

Nicaea,  Council  of,  S3. 

Nicholas,  of  Lyra,  191. 

Nicholas  L,  pope,  133,  148. 

Nicolaitans,  early  sect,  30. 

Noetus,  58. 

Novatian,  65. 

Occam,  William  of,  188,  200. 
Old  Catholics,  296. 
Ophites,  Gnostic  sect,  40. 
Orange,  William  of,  230. 
Oratory  of  the  Divine  Love,  220. 
Origen,  Adamantius,  48,  54. 
Origenistic  Controversies,  87. 
Otto  L,  emperor,  13.^,  141,  142,  143. 


Pagan,  origin  of  name,  73. 

Pantsnus,  53. 

Papias  of  Hierapolis,  36  ff. 

Parker,  Theodore,  325. 

Pascal,  Blaise,  258. 

Patriarchates,  development  of,  63,  80,81. 

Patrick,  .St.,  missionary  to  Ireland,  76. 

Patripassianism,  58. 

Paul  of  Samosata,  58. 

Paul  of  Thebes,  monk,  68. 

Paulicians,  116,  117. 

Paul,  the  Apostle,  conversion  of,  21 ;  mis- 
sionary labors  of,  22, 23  ;  martyrdom  of, 
24  ;  writings  of,  29. 

Peasants'  War,  205. 

Pelagius,  Pelagianism,  95,  96. 

Penitential  books,  123,  129. 

Penitential  presbyter,  103. 

Penn,  William,  312. 

Persecutions,  under  Decius,  48 ;  under 
Diocletian,  49 ;  under  Domitian,  26 ; 
under  Hadrian,  34 ;  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  35;  under  Maximin,  47; 
under  Nero,  26 ;  under  Septimius  Se- 
merus,  47  ;   under  Trajan,  34. 

Peter,  the  Apostle,  labors  and  death  of, 
24. 

Peter,  the  Hermit,  165,  166. 

Petrobrussians,  169. 

Pharisees,  13. 

Philip,  the  Fair,  of  France,  180. 

Philip  II.,  of  Spain,  229,  230. 

Philosophy,  ancient,  opposed  to  Christ- 
ianity, 45,  73  ;  modern,  272  ff.,  291  ff. 

Philostratus,  46. 

Photius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  133, 
138. 

Pietism,  262. 

Pius  IX.,  Pope,  295. 

Placeus,  (La  Place)  271. 

Pliny,  the  Younger,  letter  of,  to  the  em- 
peror, 33,  34- 

Plotinus,  46. 

Polity  of  the  primitive  Church,  27  ;  of  the 
sub-apostolic  Church,  42  ;  of  the  ante- 
Nicene  Church,  60 ;  of  the  Nicene  and 
post-Nicene  Church,  78. 

Polycarp  martyrdom  of,  35  ;  Epistle  of, 
36. 

Pomocracy,  134. 

Porphyry,  46. 

Pragmatic  Sanction,  163,  187. 

Praxeas,  58. 

Predestinarian  Controversy,  144  ff. 

Presbyter  and  bishop,  27,  42,  60,  78. 

Presbyterianism  in  America,  42S. 

Priscillianism,  97. 

Propaganda.  Congregation  of,  228. 

Proselytes,  kinds  of,  16 ;  preaching  to,  21. 

Protestanism,  origin  of  name,  204. 

Puritan  divines,  279. 

Puritanism,origin  and  early  forms  of,238. 

Puritans  in  New  England,  311;  custom§ 
of,  319. 


INDEX. 


339 


Quadratus,  apologist,  37. 
Quadragesima,  66,  g4. 
Quartodeciraan  Controversy,  66. 
Quesnel,  Paschasius,  259. 
Quietism,  259  ff. 

Rabbinical  schools,  32. 

Radbertus,  Paschasius,  146. 

Raymond  Lull,  27S. 

Raymond  of  Sabunde,  igi. 

Readers  in  the  Ancient  Church,  61. 

Reformation,  rise  of,  199  ff  ;  spread  of,  in 
Scandinavia,  210;  in  France,  211,  231  ; 
in  England,  2  12  ff.,  237;  in  Geneva,  215 
ff.,  inHolland,  229  ff.,  in  Scotland,  243. 

Regiiim  Doninti,  269. 

Remonstrance,  Remonstrants,  251. 

Renaissance,  igi,  219. 

Reuchlin,  John,  192. 

Richelieu,  policy  of,  235. 

Rienzi,  182. 

Ritschl,  Albrecht,  302. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  in  America, 
333  ;  in  Europe  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, 294  ff- 

Roman  Empire,  condition  of  at  the  time 
of  Christ,  12  ;  divided,  73  ;  fall  of,  loS. 

Roman  Law,  its  bearings  on  the  primitive 
Church,  33. 

Rome,  primacy  of  the  see  of,  63,  81,  82. 

Ruysbroek,  190. 

Sabbath-school  origin  of,  307. 

Sabellius,  Sabellianisra,  59. 

Sacheverell  case,  269. 

Sacramentarian  controversies,  146,  206. 

Sadducees,  14. 

Samaria,  preaching  to,  20. 

Samaritans,  16. 

Satuminus,  Gnostic  leader,  40. 

Savonarola,  Jerome,  196,  197. 

Saybrook  Platform  316. 

Schisms,  of  Calixtus  and  Hippolytus,  64  ; 
of  Felicissimus,  65  :  of  Donatus,  103  ; 
of  Meletius,  64  ;  of  Novatian,  65  ;  be- 
tween the  East  and  West,  148,  149, 
185.     Great,  of  the  West,  183. 

Schleiermacher,  Friedrich,  301. 

Scotus,  John  Duns,  178. 

Semi-Arians,  84. 

Semi-Pelagianism,  97. 

Septuagint,  15. 

Servetus,  ^lichael,  217,  218. 

Severus,  Alexander,  emperor,  47. 

Severus,  Septimius,  emperor,  47. 

Sicilian  Vespers.  163. 

.Simon  Magus,  20,  40. 

Slavery  in  the  Middle  Ages,  152. 

Smalcald,  League  of,  208 ;  war  of,  209. 

Socinus  Faustus,  254. 

Socinus,  Laelius,  254. 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  252. 

Spener,  Philip  Jacob,  262. 

Stephen,  martyrdom  of,  zq. 


Stoddard.  Solomon,  319. 
Stylites,  class  of  monks,  104. 
St.  Bartholomew,  massacre  of,  a^i 
St.  Victor,  school  of,  176. 
Sub-deacons,  61. 
Suso,  Henry,  1S9. 
Sutri,  .Synod  of,  135. 
Swedenborg,  Swedenborgianism,  264. 
Synagogue,  14. 
Synergistic  Controversy,  248. 
Synods,  in  the  early  Church,  62  (.See  also 
Councils);  in  New  England,  316. 

Talmud,  origin  of,  32. 

Tatian,  37.  38. 

Tauler,  John,  189. 

Teaching  of  the  Twelve,  {Didache)  37. 

Templars  order  of  knights,  origin  of,  166; 

suppression  of,  181. 
Tertullian,  43,  52,  58. 
Tetzel,  John,  200. 
Theodore,  of  Mopsuestia,  89. 
Theodore  of  the  Studium,  116. 
Theodotus,  the  money  changer,  58. 
Theodotus,  the  tanner,  58. 
Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  88. 
Thirty- Nine  Articles,  252. 
Thirty  Years  War,  234. 
Three  Chapters,  Controversy  of,  92,93. 
Tractarianism,  303 
Trajan,   emperor,    attitude    of    towards 

Christianity,  34. 
Transcendentalism,  324. 
Trausubstantiation,  98,  46,  203,  213,  223, 

267. 
Trent,  Council  of,  222  ff. 
Truce  of  God,  152. 
Tubingen  School  of  Criticism,  301. 
Turretin  Francis,  270. 

Ulfilas,  the  Apostle  to  the  Goths,  75. 
Ultramontanism,  297. 
Unitarianism,  in  England,  277 ;  in   Am- 
erica, 324. 
Universalists,  334. 
Universities  origin  of,  173. 

Valentinus,  Gnostic  leader,  40. 
Vasa,  Gustavus,  211. 
Voetius,  Voetians,  270. 

Waldensians,  169,  299,  300. 
Wesley  John,  280,  282  ff . 
Wesley,  Charles,  280. 
Westminister  Assembly,  252  ff. 
Westminster,  Confession   of  Faith,  252; 

adopted  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 

America,  328. 
Westphalia,  Treaty  of,  235,  255. 
Whitefield,  George,  282  ff. 
Williams,  Roger,  315. 
Willibrord,  missionary  to  Germany,  124. 
Witchcraft  Delusion,  319. 
Worship,  in  the  primitive  Cliurch,  28  ;  in 


340 


INDEX. 


the  sub-apostolic  Church,  42  ;  in  the 
ante-Nicene  Church,  64 ;  in  the  post- 
Nicene  Church,  q8  ;  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  153  ;  of  Angels,  loi  :  of  images, 
loi :  of  Mary,  100 ;  of  saints,  100. 
Wyclif,  John,  194. 


Xavier,  Francis,  Jesuit  missionary,  227, 

228. 

Zinzendorf,  count  Louis,  263. 
Zwickau,  the  prophets  of,  203. 
Zwingli,  Ulrich,  205. 


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